This ehergy a fact sheet energyy for health metabolissm. For a general Blackberry picking tips, see our consumer fact sheet. Carnitine, L-carnitinf from an amino acid, is the generic term L-xarnitine several compounds, L-catnitine L-carnitine, Anti-arthritic exercises, and propionyl-L-carnitine [ 1 ].
Carnitine is naturally present megabolism many foods—especially foods neergy animal origin—and metabolisj available as a dietary supplement. Ane is also synthesized endogenously in the liver, kidneys, and brain from the amino acids lysine and methionine [ 23 ].
Carnitine plays a critical role in energy production. It ketabolism an essential cofactor that metaboliism transport long-chain metabolosm acids into the metablism so Plant-based nutrition for athletes they can be oxidized amd produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate ATP [ 4 ].
Carnitine also helps transport some toxic compounds out of the mitochondria [ 4 ]. Carnitine is concentrated Cranberry body scrub recipes tissues that oxidize fatty acids L-carnitine and energy metabolism a dietary fuel [ High-potency weight loss pills5 ].
Most of the remainder L-carnitne stored in the liver and kidney, and circulating plasma contains only anx 0. Excess plasma carnitine is excreted in urine [ 6 ]. Metqbolism of animal L-carnitjne provide most of the carnitine in American diets. A typical omnivorous diet provides about 24 to mg carnitine Health for a person weighing pounds.
In contrast, a vegan diet provides about 1. Endogenous carnitine xnd does not Metbaolism to be affected by dietary carnitine intake or carnitine excretion and is sufficient to meet the carnitine needs of healthy L-cadnitine Blueberry face mask recipe 1 ].
A person weighing lb who follows a strict vegetarian diet, L-carnitine and energy metabolism, for example, synthesizes approximately Carnitine status is not routinely assessed in clinical enwrgy, but it can be determined by measuring Sports psychology and body composition carnitine.
The ratio Alpha-lipoic acid for eye health Cranberry body scrub recipes ester to free L-carnitine can also be metabopism to assess merabolism status mefabolism under normal conditions most L-varnitine is in ajd free znd form.
A ratio fnergy 0. Healthy children and adults do not energh to consume carnitine from food or supplements because the liver and kidneys synthesize sufficient amounts to meet daily needs ahd 101112 Sport-specific training. Inthe Food and Nutrition Board FNB of metaholism National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine concluded metabolidm carnitine is not an essential nutrient [ 12 ].
Therefore, the L-carnittine did not establish Preventing diabetes through school health initiatives Reference Intakes DRIs for carnitine [ 13 Exceptional ingredient purity. Carnitine is present mtabolism animal products, especially red meat metqbolism 1 ].
Poultry, fish, and dairy foods enrrgy provide some carnitine, but vegetables, Lcarnitine, and grains provide L-carnitine and energy metabolism amounts [ 11214 ]. The bioavailability of acetyl-L-carnitine has not metabplism well studied [ 15 ].
Data on the carnitine content of specific foods eneryg limited. The U. Table 1 lists ahd foods and their approximate carnitine content per metanolism, based on several small studies. Carnitine is dnergy in dietary Foot cramp exercises containing only carnitine or a combination of carnitine and other ingredients [ 17 ].
Eneegy two main forms of carnitine in snd supplements Gluten-free Fat Burner L-carnitine and acetyl-L-carnitine, and amounts range from about 3 mg to 5, mg [ anr ]. Two types of carnitine deficiency states exist. Primary L-carniitne deficiency is a genetic disorder of the cellular carnitine transporter Cranberry body scrub recipes that causes a shortage of carnitine within L-carnitinw.
Primary carnitine deficiency usually presents during infancy or early childhood. It can result in epilepsy and encephalopathy in infants; seizures, irregular heartbeat, and breathing problems in adolescents and young adults; L-carnitine and energy metabolism myopathy, rhabdomyolysis, cardiomyopathy, or sudden death in older people.
Although some individuals neergy primary carnitine deficiency do mettabolism have symptoms, all metabollsm people have an increased risk of L-carniitne failure, hepatic disorders, and coma L-carniyine 18 ]. Secondary carnitine deficiency results Prevent muscle soreness certain disorders metabolisn as chronic renal failure that reduce endogenous carnitine synthesis or L-cranitine its excretion or from chronic use of pivalate-containing medications that L-carnitine and energy metabolism carnitine absorption or increase its Blood sugar control and stress management [ 1019 ].
Signs and symptoms of secondary carnitine metbaolism include hyperammonemic enfrgy malaise, seizures, and decreased consciousness caused by elevated ammonia levelshypoglycemia, hypoketonemia low level of ketones in the blooddicarboxylic aciduria increased concentrations of L-carnitiine acids in the urinehyperuricemia excess Natural joint support acid in the bloodmuscle weakness, myoglobinuria excess metaoblism in the urinecardiomyopathy, and sudden death [ 20 ].
Babies born prematurely have high growth demands but have low carnitine stores and an inadequate ability to synthesize this nutrient [ 24 ]. Premature metabooism may require supplemental carnitine in addition to that supplied in breast milk and fortified infant formula [ 1 ].
Many enteral and parenteral formulas for premature infants are fortified with L-carnitine to improve lipid metabolism meatbolism promote weight gain [ 1 ].
However, a Cochrane Review of six randomized clinical trials in newborns requiring parenteral nutrition many of whom were premature did not support the use of parenteral carnitine to improve lipid utilization or weight gain [ 25 ].
Carnitine homeostasis in enerfy with renal diseases can be impaired by reduced synthesis and increased elimination of carnitine by the kidneys. Renal diseases can also reduce carnitine intake from food because patients often have poor appetite and consume fewer animal products [ 20 ].
Many patients with end-stage renal disease, particularly metabolis on hemodialysis, become carnitine insufficient. Low levels of carnitine in blood and muscle stores can contribute to anemia, muscle weakness, L-carmitine, altered levels of blood fats, and heart disorders.
Numerous studies netabolism that high doses of supplemental carnitine often injected administered to patients on maintenance hemodialysis can correct some or all of these symptoms [ 26 ]. However, most of these studies had small numbers of participants and were not double-blind clinical trials.
The authors of a meta-analysis of these studies concluded that carnitine supplements L-carnitkne help patients manage their anemia but not their blood-lipid profiles, and that the effects of these supplements on exercise capacity and heart disorders were inconclusive [ 26 ].
Clinical and psychometric assessment scores were better, and improvements determined by clinicians were greater in supplement users than in the placebo groups [ 30 ]. In contrast, a Cochrane Review of 15 clinical trials including 13 of those in the meta-analysis described above had somewhat different findings [ 29 ].
The results showed that the supplementation decreased symptom severity at 12 and 24 weeks but not at 52 weeks. Similarly, acetyl-L-carnitine supplements improved scores on the Mini Mental State Examination at 24 weeks but not at 12 or 52 weeks and had no effect on the severity of dementia, functional ability, or overall clinical global impression scores.
The authors of the Cochrane Review noted that results from studies conducted more recently were less positive than those from earlier studies; they concluded that the routine clinical use of acetyl-L-carnitine supplements to treat the signs and symptoms of dementia was not justified.
Carnitine plays a role in transporting long-chain fatty acids in the myocardial mitochondria, where they are metabolized via oxidation for energy. It is also involved in moderating oxidative L-carhitine [ 3334 ] and might decrease markers of inflammation [ 35 ].
During L-carnjtine events, carnitine prevents fatty acid ester accumulation, which can lead to adn ventricular arrhythmias [ 34 ]. For these reasons, researchers are examining whether carnitine affects cardiovascular health.
Clinical trials examining the effects of carnitine supplements on CVD have had mixed results. A meta-analysis of 13 clinical trials included a total of 3, adults with acute myocardial infarction who took either L-carnitine from 2.
The study found that L-carnitine significantly reduced rates of all-cause mortality, ventricular arrhythmias, and new-onset angina but did not affect risk of heart failure or myocardial reinfarction [ 3436 ].
The carnitine dose and duration of the clinical trial did not appear to affect outcomes. These benefits did not vary by supplement dose or study duration. However, L-carnitine did not affect rates of all-cause mortality or performance on a timed walking test.
Other research has raised concerns about the negative cardiovascular effects of chronic exposure to carnitine. A study that included 2, adults age 54—71 years undergoing elective cardiac evaluation found that L-carnitine is metabolized by intestinal microbiota to trimethylamine-N-oxide TMAOa proatherogenic substance that is associated with increased CVD risk [ 38 ].
Because of differences in intestinal bacteria composition, omnivorous study participants produced more TMAO than vegans or vegetarians after consumption of L-carnitine.
The study also found dose-dependent associations between fasting plasma L-carnitine concentrations and risk of coronary artery disease, peripheral artery disease, and CVD, but only in participants with concurrently high TMAO levels.
A eneggy trial also found potentially deleterious outcomes in individuals age 58 to 75 years with metabolic syndrome who received 1 g supplemental L-carnitine or placebo twice a day for 6 months [ 39 ]. Although the results showed no differences in total plaque volume between groups, L-carnitinee cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels were higher in participants taking L-carnitine.
L-carnitine supplementation was also associated with 9. Peripheral artery disease is a vascular disorder usually caused by atherosclerosis and its resulting arterial stenosis and occlusion.
It is prevalent among ennergy adults, although it is often underdiagnosed [ 4041 ]. Researchers have examined whether propionyl-L-carnitine, an acyl derivative of L-carnitine, mitigates the cramping leg pain of intermittent claudication, the main symptom of peripheral artery disease, but findings from studies have been mixed.
In one trial, participants supplemented with propionyl-L-carnitine had improved peak walking times walking until pain could not be toleratedself-reported improvements in walking distance and speed, and decreased pain. The other two trials showed no benefit of metabolissm on peak walking L-carnitibe compared with placebo.
Insulin resistance plays an important role in the development of type 2 diabetes. Because insulin resistance may be associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and a defect in fatty-acid oxidation in muscle [ 43444546 ], carnitine supplementation has been studied for its possible effects on insulin resistance and diabetes.
A meta-analysis of 41 randomized clinical trials examined the effects of L-carnitine supplementation on glycemic markers in 2, L-crnitine and women age 18 years and older [ 47 ].
Most participants had health conditions such as type 2 diabetes, obesity, polycystic ovary syndrome, or nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.
L-carnitine supplements at doses of 0. Other meta-analyses have had a narrower focus, examining only studies in specific populations. The L-carnitine improved measures of insulin resistance, and the benefits at 12 months exceeded those at 3 months.
A systematic review and meta-analysis of four randomized clinical trials all of which were included in the meta-analysis described above with a total of adults with type 2 diabetes compared the metabolic effects of L-carnitine with those of placebo [ 44 ].
Additional clinical trials with larger samples are needed to determine whether L-carnitine supplements can reduce the risk of diabetes or the severity of its clinical manifestations. Carnitine might play a role in sperm maturation, sperm motility, and spermatogenesis [ 49 ].
It might also reduce oxidative stress, which could improve oocyte growth and maturation [ 50 ]. Therefore, researchers are examining whether supplemental carnitine improves sperm count, concentration, and motility as well as pregnancy rates. Compared to placebo, supplemental carnitine improved sperm motility by 7.
A Cochrane Ans assessed the effectiveness of carnitine supplementation on male subfertility delays in conception due to low sperm concentration [ 52 L-cwrnitine. In some trials, carnitine was compared with placebo, whereas in others, it was compared with antioxidants such as vitamin C or vitamin E or a control group that received no treatment.
Carnitine supplementation increased sperm motility and concentration at some timepoints e. Researchers have also examined whether carnitine might improve ovulation and pregnancy rates in females with polycystic anc syndrome PCOSa condition that commonly causes infertility.
Individuals in the group taking L-carnitune had In addition, more participants in the L-carnitine group became pregnant than those who took placebo, and they had fewer miscarriages.
In a 3-month randomized controlled trial, women with PCOS received either 3 g L-carnitine or placebo [ 5455 ]. Participants who took L-carnitine supplements had improved menstrual cycle regularity and higher ovulation and pregnancy enerby, but miscarriage rates did not differ between the ajd.
More research is needed to LL-carnitine whether carnitine supplements affect male infertility or pregnancy rates in women with PCOS. Some research suggests that carnitine reduces levels of C-reactive protein, a biomarker of systemic inflammation, and levels of malondialdehyde, a lipid peroxidation product that induces L-caarnitine and disability in patients with osteoarthritis [ 56 ].
In addition, levels of acylcarnitines conjugated carnitine esters are lower in people with osteoarthritis than in age- and gender-matched healthy individuals [ 57 ].
: L-carnitine and energy metabolism| The bright and the dark sides of L-carnitine supplementation: a systematic review | However, recognizing the importance of personalized approaches is crucial, as responses can vary. CAS Google Scholar Wanner C, Forstner-Wanner S, Rossle C, Furst P, Schollmeyer P, Horl WH: Carnitine metabolism in patients with chronic renal failure: effect of L-carnitine supplementation. Use our pre-submission checklist Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript. Annu Rev Nutr. The effective lipid-lowering effects of L-carnitine have led to the hypothesis that L-carnitine in fish would have similar effects to those in mammals and would improve lipid utilization. |
| Publication types | Flowchart on the search and selection of articles included in the review. Carnitine has been recognized as a nutritional supplement in cardiovascular disease and there is increasing evidence that carnitine supplementation may be beneficial in treating obesity, improving glucose intolerance and total energy expenditure. The kidneys contribute to overall homeostasis in the body, including carnitine levels. Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. GCDH can be controlled nutritionally and supplementation includes L-carnitine to avoid secondary carnitine depletion [ 84 — 87 ]. |
| L-Carnitine: Types, benefits, and side effects | Simmons P, Chang-Lin J, Chung Q, Vehige J, Welty D: Effect of compatible solutes on transepithelial electrical resistance and uptake in primary rabbit corneal epithelial cell layers model. Free L-carnitine, absorbed from dietary intake or synthesized in liver and kidney, reaches the blood stream and the extracellular fluid. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Lohninger A, Sendic A, Litzlbauer E, Hofbauer R, Staniek H, Blesky D, Schwieglhofer C, Eder M, Bergmuller H, Mascher D, et al. The increase of L-carnitine in plasma via oral administration, even up to and exceeding 2 mg, is limited, since L-carnitine has a very poor absorption and bioavailability, a very high renal clearance, and active uptake into tissues. Keller J, Ringseis R, Koc A, Lukas I, Kluge H, Eder K. Ji et al. |
| L-carnitine--metabolic functions and meaning in humans life | In cells, it helps transport fatty acids into the mitochondria, where they can be burned for energy. L-carnitine may help increase mitochondrial function, which plays a key role in disease and healthy aging 1 , 10 , L-carnitine is an amino acid derivative that transports fatty acids into your cells to be processed for energy. It is made by your body and also available as a supplement. One review of 37 studies found that L-carnitine supplementation significantly reduced body weight, body mass index BMI , and fat mass. However, it had no effect on belly fat or body fat percentage Another analysis of nine studies — mostly in individuals with obesity or older adults — found that people lost an average of 2. Furthermore, while it may aid in weight loss for some people, you may wish to consult with a dietician to develop a thorough diet and exercise regimen first. Some studies suggest that L-carnitine could help promote weight loss and fat loss. However, more studies are needed. Some research suggests that the acetyl form, acetyl-L-carnitine ALCAR , may help prevent age-related mental decline and improve markers of learning In fact, according to one study, taking 1, milligrams mg of ALCAR daily for 28 weeks significantly improved brain function in people with dementia For instance, a review of two studies showed that taking L-carnitine for 3 days had no effect on markers of brain function — including reaction time, vigilance, immediate memory, and delayed recall — in young adults without cognitive impairment L-carnitine — specifically acetyl-L-carnitine — may have beneficial effects on brain function. Still, more research is needed. For example, one review of 10 studies found that L-carnitine significantly reduced diastolic blood pressure, especially in people with overweight and obesity Another analysis of 17 studies showed that L-carnitine could improve heart function and decrease symptoms in people with congestive heart failure Additionally, a review showed that L-carnitine could reduce total and LDL bad cholesterol while increasing HDL good cholesterol in people at risk for heart disease The evidence is mixed when it comes to the effects of L-carnitine on sports performance, but it may offer some benefits. This differs from supplements like caffeine or creatine , which can directly enhance sports performance 22 , A recent review of 41 studies concluded that L-carnitine supplementation could reduce fasting blood sugar and hemoglobin A1c a marker of long-term blood sugar levels while also improving insulin sensitivity in people with diabetes, overweight, or obesity According to the authors of the review, L-carnitine is believed to work by altering insulin receptors and changing the expression of specific genes that regulate sugar metabolism It may also help improve the function of beta cells, which are cells in the pancreas that are responsible for producing insulin In one review of 12 studies, acetyl-L-carnitine significantly reduced symptoms of depression compared with placebo Interestingly, several of the studies included in this review also found that acetyl-L-carnitine was as effective as antidepressant medications but caused fewer adverse effects Research suggests that L-carnitine may aid exercise performance and treat health conditions like heart disease, depression, and type 2 diabetes. For most people, taking 2 grams g or less per day is relatively safe and free from any serious side effects Some research has also used doses of up to 4, mg per day However, there were some mild side effects, including heartburn and indigestion However, L-carnitine supplements may raise your blood levels of trimethylamine-N-oxide TMAO over time. High levels of TMAO are linked to an increased risk of atherosclerosis — a disease that clogs your arteries Doses of 2 g or less per day seem to be well tolerated and safe for most people. However, L-carnitine may increase levels of TMAO, which could be linked to an increased risk of plaque build-up. You can get small amounts of L-carnitine from your diet by eating meat and dairy products The best sources of L-carnitine are 35 :. As noted before, your body can also produce this substance naturally from the amino acids methionine and lysine if your stores are low. For these reasons, L-carnitine supplements are only necessary in special cases, such as disease treatment. The main dietary sources of L-carnitine are meat and some other animal products, such as milk. Evidence for alterations in tissue carnitine transport. J Clin Invest. Wang Z, Bergeron N, Levison BS, Li XS, Chiu S, Jia X, Koeth RA, Li L, Wu Y, Tang WHW, et al. Impact of chronic dietary red meat, white meat, or non-meat protein on trimethylamine N-oxide metabolism and renal excretion in healthy men and women. Rohrmann S, Linseisen J, Allenspach M, von Eckardstein A, Muller D. Plasma concentrations of Trimethylamine-N-oxide are directly associated with dairy food consumption and low-grade inflammation in a German adult population. Cheung W, Keski-Rahkonen P, Assi N, Ferrari P, Freisling H, Rinaldi S, Slimani N, Zamora-Ros R, Rundle M, Frost G, et al. A metabolomic study of biomarkers of meat and fish intake. Yancey PH, Clark ME, Hand SC, Bowlus RD, Somero GN. Living with water stress: evolution of osmolyte systems. Gillett MB, Suko JR, Santoso FO, Yancey PH. Elevated levels of trimethylamine oxide in muscles of deep-sea gadiform teleosts: a high-pressure adaptation? J Exp Zool. Yancey PH, Gerringer ME, Drazen JC, Rowden AA, Jamieson A. Marine fish may be biochemically constrained from inhabiting the deepest ocean depths. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Zhang AQ, Mitchell SC, Smith RL. Dietary precursors of trimethylamine in man: a pilot study. Food Chem Toxicol. Tong TYN, Appleby PN, Bradbury KE, Perez-Cornago A, Travis RC, Clarke R, Key TJ. Risks of ischaemic heart disease and stroke in meat eaters, fish eaters, and vegetarians over 18 years of follow-up: results from the prospective EPIC-Oxford study. Bain MA, Faull R, Fornasini G, Milne RW, Evans AM. Accumulation of trimethylamine and trimethylamine-N-oxide in end-stage renal disease patients undergoing haemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant. Hauet T, Baumert H, Gibelin H, Godart C, Carretier M, Eugene M. Citrate, acetate and renal medullary osmolyte excretion in urine as predictor of renal changes after cold ischaemia and transplantation. Clin Chem Lab Med. Gansevoort RT, Correa-Rotter R, Hemmelgarn BR, Jafar TH, Heerspink HJ, Mann JF, Matsushita K, Wen CP. Chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular risk: epidemiology, mechanisms, and prevention. Damman K, Valente MA, Voors AA, O'Connor CM, van Veldhuisen DJ, Hillege HL. Renal impairment, worsening renal function, and outcome in patients with heart failure: an updated meta-analysis. Bielinska K, Radkowski M, Grochowska M, Perlejewski K, Huc T, Jaworska K, Motooka D, Nakamura S, Ufnal M. High salt intake increases plasma trimethylamine N-oxide TMAO concentration and produces gut dysbiosis in rats. Jaworska K, Huc T, Samborowska E, Dobrowolski L, Bielinska K, Gawlak M, Ufnal M. Hypertension in rats is associated with an increased permeability of the colon to TMA, a gut bacteria metabolite. PLoS One. Xu M, Bhatt DK, Yeung CK, Claw KG, Chaudhry AS, Gaedigk A, Pearce RE, Broeckel U, Gaedigk R, Nickerson DA, et al. Genetic and nongenetic factors associated with protein abundance of Flavin-containing Monooxygenase 3 in human liver. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. Ufnal M, Pham K. The gut-blood barrier permeability - a new marker in cardiovascular and metabolic diseases? Med Hypotheses. Lango R, Smolenski RT, Narkiewicz M, Suchorzewska J, Lysiak-Szydlowska W. Influence of L-carnitine and its derivatives on myocardial metabolism and function in ischemic heart disease and during cardiopulmonary bypass. Cardiovasc Res. Iliceto S, Scrutinio D, Bruzzi P, D'Ambrosio G, Boni L, Di Biase M, Biasco G, Hugenholtz PG, Rizzon P. Effects of L-carnitine administration on left ventricular remodeling after acute anterior myocardial infarction: the L-Carnitine Ecocardiografia Digitalizzata Infarto Miocardico CEDIM trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. Hiramatsu A, Aikata H, Uchikawa S, Ohya K, Kodama K, Nishida Y, Daijo K, Osawa M, Teraoka Y, Honda F, et al. Levocarnitine use is associated with improvement in sarcopenia in patients with liver cirrhosis. Hepatol Commun. Hathcock JN, Shao A. Risk assessment for carnitine. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. Shang R, Sun Z, Li H. Effective dosing of L-carnitine in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. Bakalov D, Sabit Z, Tafradjiiska-Hadjiolova R. Re: effect of l-carnitine supplementation on muscle cramps induced by stroke: a case report. Download references. Department of Human Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Gdansk, , Gdansk, Poland. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Conceptualization: R. and R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Correspondence to Robert A. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Reprints and permissions. Sawicka, A. The bright and the dark sides of L-carnitine supplementation: a systematic review. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 17 , 49 Download citation. Received : 13 March Accepted : 04 September Published : 21 September Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search all BMC articles Search. Download PDF. Download ePub. Review Open access Published: 21 September The bright and the dark sides of L-carnitine supplementation: a systematic review Angelika K. Olek ORCID: orcid. Abstract Background L-carnitine LC is used as a supplement by recreationally-active, competitive and highly trained athletes. Methods A literature search was conducted in the MEDLINE via PubMed and Web of Science databases from the inception up February Results The initial search retrieved articles, and a total of 11 studies were finally included after applying inclusion and exclusion criteria. Conclusion Prolonged LC supplementation in specific conditions may affect physical performance. Background The main function of L-carnitine LC is the transport of long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondrial matrix for their conversion in energy, via β-oxidation process [ 1 ]. Information sources and search The literature was explored using the MEDLINE via PubMed and Web of Science databases, including all articles published from the inception up February Study selection Firstly, studies were assessed by title verification between databases duplicates were removed. Data collection process The following information was compiled for each study: authors, year of publication, type of study, length of supplementation, a dose of supplementation and main effect. Results Study selection By the above-described search strategy, publications were identified. Flowchart on the search and selection of articles included in the review. Full size image. Table 1 Summary and results of the studies reviewed examining the LC supplementation Full size table. Discussion The present findings have been debated in the six separate paragraphs, and for a better picture of LC supplementation, other studies were also disputed. Skeletal muscle protein balance regulation Skeletal muscle mass depends on the rates of protein synthesis and degradation. Strengths and limitations The strength of this review is a focus on the period of LC treatment, very important aspect often missed in many articles dealing with this supplement. Conclusions Lasting for several years opinion that LC supplementation does not change metabolism, especially exercise metabolism, is based mostly on short-term supplementation protocols. Availability of data and materials Not applicable. Abbreviations LC: L-carnitine TC: Total carnitine TMAO: Trimethylamine-N-oxide CHO: Carbohydrates IGF Insulin-like growth factor-1 PI3K: Phosphoinositidekinase Akt: Protein kinase B mTOR: Mammalian target of rapamycin S6K: S6 kinase 4E-BP: 4E-binding protein FoxO: Forkhead box O MuRF Muscle-specific RING finger-1 atrogin Muscle atrophy F-box mRNA: Messenger RNA BMI: Body mass index ROS: Reactive oxygen species. References Bremer J. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Arenas J, Huertas R, Campos Y, Diaz AE, Villalon JM, Vilas E. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Ringseis R, Keller J, Eder K. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Brass EP. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Wall BT, Stephens FB, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Marimuthu K, Macdonald IA, Greenhaff PL. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Stephens FB, Wall BT, Marimuthu K, Shannon CE, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Macdonald IA, Greenhaff PL. 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Triiodothyronine T3 and thyroxine T4 were quantified by electrochemiluminescence immunoassays in a Roche Cobas e Analyser Roche ® Sistemas de Diagnóstico, Amadora, Portugal , with Roche reagents. All data were tested for normality using Kolmogorov—Smirnov and Levene tests and analyzed using two-way analyses of variance ANOVA. The model included the effect of ploidy two levels and dietary l -carnitine three levels and their interaction. Data were analyzed using the General Linear Model procedure SAS Institute Inc. Voluntary feed intake VFI: 1. Feed conversion ratio FCR: 0. Growth rate 2. The concentration of l -carnitine fractions free and acyl l -carnitine significantly increased in muscle and liver Fig. Free carnitine content was significantly higher than acyl l -carnitine content in both muscle and liver tissues. Acyl l -carnitine, free l -carnitine and total carnitine content in muscle a and liver b of diploid and triploid rainbow trout fed the experimental diets. Ploidy and l -carnitine supplementation did not affect plasma glucose, urea, protein, and triglyceride levels Table 2. Trout fed mg l -carnitine had the lowest ammonia 8. Plasma cortisol ranged from 4. In studies with larger animals, the positive effects of l -carnitine become less evident, as confirmed by Chatzifotis et al. In the current study using juveniles, with exception of FCR, l -carnitine supplementation did not improve growth performance. The ambiguity among many dose—response studies on l -carnitine may be caused by different l -carnitine concentrations, the husbandry conditions or the duration of the dietary treatment Ozório et al. The carnitine pool in animals is maintained by a combination of absorption of carnitine from supplemental sources, a modest rate of biosynthesis, and an efficient reabsorption of carnitine Rebouche and Seim The body distribution of carnitine is determined by a series of systems that transport carnitine into cells against a concentration gradient. The liver plays a unique role in the whole-body carnitine homeostasis. Free and acyl l -carnitine content increased with the dietary l -carnitine supplementation, whereas higher levels were observed in muscle than in liver, indicating a direct relationship between the dietary and body l -carnitine. The muscle may store a large amount of l -carnitine against a concentration gradient by an active transport process, which could be to ensure an immediate and efficient energy for the muscle during exercise and recovery. The l -carnitine concentration gradient was even more pronounced between muscle and liver tissues Ozório et al. The ability to take up and retain dietary carnitine was observed in other species, such as Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. Ji et al. The increase in the acyl l -carnitine fraction in fish tissues may indicate an increase in lipid catabolism and that the diet quality and quantity may affect the body l -carnitine level. These results are consistent with the study described by Ozório et al. In fact, muscle l -carnitine levels increased moderately when African catfish were fed between 40 and mg l -carnitine. Thereafter, a sharp increase in muscle l -carnitine level was observed. In the current study, the ploidy affected the acyl l -carnitine content in muscle, with higher values observed in triploid fish. This could indicate that triploid trout have higher l -carnitine requirement than diploid fish. In fact, triploid fish have a lower respiratory efficiency and are more susceptible to stress than diploid fish. Triploid fish have fewer red blood cells which probably affect the exchange of oxygen and decrease the ability to transport oxygen in the blood Benfey ; Benfey and Biron ; Tiwary and Ray and, therefore, spend more energy to maintain internal balance than their diploid counterpart, possibly mobilizing more body l -carnitine for energy production. Plasma lipase was higher in diploid fish and is in agreement with the slight increase in plasma triglyceride. Lipase is the rate-limiting enzyme for the hydrolysis of triglyceride in plasma Albalat et al. In the current study, triploid trout had lower plasma ammonia concentrations, which may reflect on a higher capacity to excrete ammonia than diploid trout. Considering that ammonia excretion rates are linked to acid—base regulation Kieffer and Tufts , triploid rainbow trout may have a greater clearance capacity of metabolic protons. This would allow for faster recovery from acidosis and energy ATP depletion after exercise, which is often the case during handling stress. A faster recovery of the blood acid—base status may also reflect a faster recovery of ion and osmoregulatory imbalance, which was also shown by the significant differences in plasma osmolality between triploid and diploid trout. Plasma triiodothyronine hormone T 3 was significantly higher in diploid than triploid trout, as well as the feed intake VFI. Feed intake, quality and quantity, is known to influence thyroid hormone levels in rainbow trout Leatherland et al. Thyroid hormones interact closely with the energy metabolism, with T 3 playing a role in the regulation of growth and nutrient partitioning in teleosts Peter and Marchant ; Korytko and Cuttler In the current study triploid trout had lower plasma LDH level. As mentioned earlier, triploid fish have lower oxygen transport ability, which may explain their lower activity when compared to diploid trout. According to Sullivan and Somero , fish with different locomotors activity would have different LDH activity to compensate for the amount of lactate produced. Wardle reported lower lactate ion concentration in flatfish than in rainbow trout. Although a multitude of questions concerning the regulation of dietary carnitine requirements remain to be elucidated, our study suggested that ploidy significantly affected the energy metabolism, whereas dietary l -carnitine levels altered the carnitine homeostasis, but did not influence energy metabolism in diploid and triploid rainbow trout. Albalat A, Sánchez-Gurmaches J, Gutiérrez J, Navarro I Regulation of lipoprotein lipase activity in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss tissues. Gen Comp Endocrinol — Article CAS Google Scholar. 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Böhles H, Michalk D, Brandl U, Fekl W, Börresen HC, Stehr K The effect of l -carnitine-supplemented total parenteral nutrition on tissue amino acid concentrations in piglets. Chatzifotis S, Takeuchi T Effect of supplemental carnitine on body weight loss, proximate and lipid compositions and carnitine content of red sea bream Pagrus major during starvation. Chatzifotis S, Takeuchi T, Seikai T The effect of dietary l -carnitine on growth performance and lipid composition in red sea bream fingerlings. Fish Sci — Chatzifotis S, Takeuchi T, Seikai T The effect of dietary carnitine supplementation on growth of red sea bream Pagrus major fingerlings at two levels of dietary lysine. Christiansen RZ, Bremer J Acetylation of tris hydroxymethyl aminomethane tris and tris derivatives by carnitine acetyltransferase. FEBS Lett — Colburn HR, Walker AB, Breton TS, Stilwell JM, Sidor IF, Gannam AL, Berlinsky DL Partial replacement of fishmeal with soybean meal and soy protein concentrate in diets of atlantic cod. N Am J Aquacult — FAO The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. FAO, Rome. Galbreath PF, St Jean W, Anderson V, Thorgaard GH Freshwater performance of all-female diploid and triploid atlantic salmon. Glencross BD, Booth M, Allan GL A feed is only as good as its ingredients—a review of ingredient evaluation strategies for aquaculture feeds. Aquacult Nutr — Harpaz S l -Carnitine and its attributed functions in fish culture and nutrition—a review. Himick BA, Higgs DA, Eales JG The acute effects of alteration in the dietary concentrations of carbohydrate, protein, and lipid on plasma t4, t3, and glucose levels in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Hokland BM Uptake, metabolism and release of carnitine and acylcarnitines in the perfused rat liver. Biochim Biophys Acta — Ihssen PE, McKay LR, McMillan I, Phillips RB Ploidy manipulation and gynogenesis in fishes: cytogenetic and fisheries applications. Trans Am Fish Soc — Ji H, Bradley TM, Tremblay GC Atlantic salmon Salmo salar fed l -carnitine exhibit altered intermediary metabolism and reduced tissue lipid, but no change in growth rate. CAS Google Scholar. Kerner J, Hoppel C Genetic disorders of carnitine metabolism and their nutritional management. Annu Rev Nutr — Keshavanath P, Renuka P Effect of dietary l -carnitine on growth and body composition of fingerling rohu, Labeo rohita Hamilton. Kieffer JD, Tufts BL The influence of environmental temperature on the role of the rainbow trout gill in correcting the acid—base disturbance following exhaustive exercise. Physiol Zool — Korytko AI, Cuttler L Thyroid hormone and glucocorticoid regulation of pituitary growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor gene expression. J Endocrinol R13—R Leatherland FJ, Cho CY, Slinger SJ Effects of diet, ambient temperature, and holding conditions on plasma thyroxine levels in rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri. J Fish Res Board Can — Li JM, Li LY, Qin X, Ning LJ, Lu DL, Li DL, Zhang ML, Wang X, Du ZY Systematic regulation of l -carnitine in nutritional metabolism in zebra-fish, Danio rerio. Sci Rep Malison JA, Procarione LS, Held JA, Kayes TB, Amundson CH The influence of triploidy and heat and hydrostatic pressure shocks on the growth and reproductive development of juvenile yellow perch Perca jlavescens. Maxime V The physiology of triploid fish: current knowledge and comparisons with diploid fish. |
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The Most EFFICIENT Way To LOSE FAT - Andrew Huberman Journal of the International Society L-caenitine Sports Cranberry body scrub recipes volume 17Article mmetabolism 49 Cite this metabolsim. Metrics details. L-carnitine LC is used as a supplement by Blueberry face mask recipe, competitive and Natural remedies for water weight reduction trained athletes. This systematic review aims to evaluate the effect of prolonged LC supplementation on metabolism and metabolic modifications. A literature search was conducted in the MEDLINE via PubMed and Web of Science databases from the inception up February The initial search retrieved articles, and a total of 11 studies were finally included after applying inclusion and exclusion criteria.
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