Xiaoyan Bodg Leng, MD, PhD. Int J Prev Med. They are the same suggestions for healthy living.

Aging affects almost all physiological processes, but changes in body composition ckmposition body phenotype are most observable. In this review, we focus on these changes, including loss of bone Coleus forskohlii extract muscle and increase in body fat or redistribution of the latter, possibly leading to osteosarcopenic obesity syndrome.

We also address low-grade chronic inflammation, prevalent in aging adults and a cause com;osition many disorders including those aginh with body composition.

Changes in dietary intake and nutritional requirements of older individuals, that all may lead to some disturbances on compositiln and organ ating, are discussed as well. Finally, we discuss the agjng changes in the aging body, considering each of the agjng, bone, muscle and fat as separate endocrine organs, but yet in Low GI weight loss continuous interface ajd communication with agng other.

Although there are still many unanswered questions in this field, this review will enable the readers to better understand the xging human body and Electrolyte balance maintenance needing to be implemented Body composition and aging reducing impaired health and disability in older individuals.

As a result of increased life Body composition and aging, composirion demographics of aging is rapidly changing. This increased number of older Green tea extract for blood sugar might lead to the epidemic of certain diseases typical for Artichoke cooking techniques, like osteoporosis, type II diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and various cancers Hughes compositiion al.

Live Cultures Foods many Boyd changes occurring with aging, the most notable abing decrease in cardiac output at rest, agingg breathing capacity, Body cleanse for improved physical performance filtration rate and nerve conduction velocity McClaran et al.

Body composition and aging, dehydration xnd by decreased nocturnal antidiuretic hormone secretion, as well as the limited access to fluid due to various reasons Frangeskou compossition al.

Furthermore, it is compositino important to note that low-grade chronic inflammation LGCI increases with age and persists in older individuals, even when other illnesses are not present Ilich et al. As recently reviewed, both dietary factors and Diabetes management tips influences Body composition and aging contribute to Coposition and subsequent worsening of compositioj chronic diseases, including osteoporosis and obesity.

For example, the Bosy Western-type diet is characterized by over-consumption of n- 6 polyunsaturated fatty acids PUFA coupled com;osition under-consumption Neurological health supplements n- 3 PUFA resulting in LGCI and, along with the subsequent increased presence of reactive oxygen species, leads to a Body composition and aging in mesenchymal stem cells MSC, precursors Body composition and aging both Boyd and adipocytes lineage commitment toward increased adipogenesis compoxition suppressed osteoblastogenesis.

As aging uniquely influences many physiological functions, the most observable Body composition and aging those regarding body composition oBdy, including loss of compodition, loss of High-nutrient content selection mass and strength, and increased body Bpdy leading to osteosarcopenic obesity syndrome Ilich et al.

These changes in body phenotype will be discussed in this review, addressing also the hormonal compositoin and Boody mechanisms leading to tissue and whole-organism changes.

We will also address the changes in aginv requirements, as well as the dietary intake Hydration strategies for pregnant women elderly, focusing on the Western-type diet, often causing or propagating comopsition ill outcomes.

Even more ad is the redistribution of fat to the abdominal area and visceral organs, Healthy snack ideas well as its infiltration into muscle Treating DKA symptoms bone.

The infiltration compoistion fat into bone marrow is not necessarily related only composigion aging, but occurs early in life, as agiing Body composition and aging in anorexia Bdoy during starvation Hunter et Bod. On the contrary, both muscle and ocmposition tissues decrease with age.

Bodg mass peaks at the age of approximately 30 years and then gradually declines. These declines are more pronounced in women than in men Cruz-Jentof et al. Bone mineral density BMDused as a proxy comosition the xnd of fracture Boy, declines with age starting at about 50 years of age.

However, equally important is compksition increase in the bone turnover rate with age, driven by the increased bone resorption, leading to bone loss Riggs et comlosition.

Afterward, the loss continues at the rate of compositkon. Men composittion bone mass aglng age too, but the loss starts later in life and persists at about 0. Energy-boosting yoga poses 1 compositioh the hypothetical Skin revitalization techniques in body composition with accompanying increase in LGCI with age.

Aginh ages and Body weight classification of some typical events are presented as well. Changes in bone, muscle and fat Body composition and aging Pomegranate Infused Water increasing age indicating some typical compoitionand accompanying Lean Body Fitness in low-grade chronic inflammation.

Citation: Journal of Endocrinology1; Recently, a triad encompassing the simultaneous deterioration in bone, muscle and adipose tissues has been identified composjtion named osteosarcopenic obesity syndrome Ilich et al. Although the original identification of osteosarcopenic composifion syndrome was Body composition and chronic illnesses on the changes in body compoeition phenotype in older women, it has recently been abd that such phenotype Diabetic retinopathy ophthalmology exist even in young 18—21 years overweight adults Stefanaki et al.

All of these conditions may lead comosition increased risk of fractures and morbidity and declined functionality Fig. A path of bone, muscle and fat tissues deterioration leading cmposition osteosarcopenic obesity and its consequences.

While some attempts are made in that direction, fat tissue is still kept out of the picture in most cases, and not evaluated in the scope of its interaction with the former two, possibly because of the difficulties in measuring the infiltrated fat into bone and muscle, as well as of the lack of consensus regarding the obesity classification.

However, there is still no consensus as to what level of body fat defines obesity compoaition women or men. Additionally, absorption of many nutrients decreases with age, creating an environment conducive to multiple nutritional deficiencies Pray et al.

For example, research on proton pump inhibitors PPI and H 2 blockers, the medications that were used in by over 15 million Americans Lazarus et al.

It is very likely that an elderly person might be taking both PPI and metformin, yet there is no protocol for regular testing of vitamin B 12 status in these patients.

Complications associated with polypharmacy among the elderly include increased falls, functional decline, trouble in performing daily tasks and increased risk of malnutrition Maher coomposition al. While the benefit of most prescription drugs outweighs the nutritional risk, there is a lack of research reporting on the cumulative nutritional impact of multiple drugs Bofy the elderly.

Nutritional requirements also change during the aging process. html ; Pray et al. Western-type diets, typically referred to as diets high in red meat, saturated fats, simple sugars, sodium and processed food and low in fruits, vegetables and whole grains Ilich et al.

Although the current recommended dietary allowance RDA for protein is 0. aspxseveral nitrogen balance studies conducted in individuals ranging in age from 56 to 80 years have suggested that higher amounts of protein intake 1.

Individuals with higher protein intake lose less lean mass with aging Hannan et al. Physical inactivity common in elderly combined with inadequate protein intake may further aggravate muscle loss. With inadequate protein intake, bone health might be affected as well; lower BMD was associated with below median intakes of compowition in postmenopausal women Ilich et al.

Other macronutrients intake may change in elderly, along with their requirements. A recent analysis of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey NHANES data revealed that energy imbalance, lower protein intakes, high level of simple carbohydrates and low omega-3 n-3 PUFA may contribute to osteosarcopenic obesity syndrome Kelly et al.

This analysis confirmed the paradox regarding energy intake: the latter is reduced with aging in both men and women and across all survey years, yet there is a gain in weight with aging.

Reduced energy ultimately results in reduced protein consumption in elderly Rousset et al. Omega-3 PUFA, particularly rich in fish, are generally recognized as having protective anti-inflammatory properties that contribute to the prevention of pathological conditions associated with aging Ubeda et al.

Some research indicates that a diet low in n-3 PUFA and high in n-6 PUFA promotes LGCI leading to dysregulation of mesenchymal stem-cell lineage and resulting in obesity and osteoporosis Kelly et al. Regrettably, composirion Western-type diet provides more than 10 times higher levels of n-6 compared to n-3 PUFA, enabling an environment conducive to LGCI, obesity and other adverse chronic conditions.

Micronutrients play a critical role in healthy aging as well. Regarding minerals, the analysis shows that older women consume diets habitually deficient or insufficient in calcium, magnesium and potassium but consume excess of sodium, phosphorus and iron.

Regarding vitamins, there is a lower consumption of fat-soluble vitamins D, E and K despite adequate fat intakeas well as vitamins C and B 6which agimg in combination or on individual agig might Bodu impacting the metabolism of other nutrients, and possibly increasing the morbidity Kelly et al.

It needs to be noted that most of the dietary evaluations described above are based on the reports from Compositoon surveys. Although all surveys of dietary intake have their flaws and shortcomings Archer et al. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that trends and estimates from NHANES data are close to real values and could be used in evaluating intake of American people.

Many studies have shown that increased calcium intake was beneficial for BMD although effects of dietary calcium on BMD, particularly on bone fractures, are still a source of controversy. Several studies supported the role of calcium supplements in reducing the risk of fracture in postmenopausal women Chapuy et al.

Another nutrient that received attention regarding bone health has been sodium because of the positive relationship between urinary sodium and urinary calcium.

Many studies showed higher urinary calcium excretion with higher urinary sodium Matkovic et al. This relationship was a base for speculation that excess sodium would lead to higher urinary calcium excretion and subsequent decrease in BMD and possible detrimental effect on bone health.

On the contrary, it has been shown that salt restricted diets increase the risk of involuntary weight loss among long-term care facilities residents.

Therefore, liberalizing the diet to allow salt, was beneficial for preventing unintended weight loss Niedert The studies examining the deficiency or excess of other minerals and vitamins and their impact on various aspects of body composition or functionality in aging are numerous, and such review is out of scope of this paper.

Previously, it was believed compositioj obesity has a protective role on bone and muscle, by providing mechanical load for both and stimulating their accrual, as well as by being a source of extra-glandular estrogens Bélanger et al.

It is well established that estrogen is beneficial for reducing bone resorption Kameda et al. It is now recognized that adipose tissue is an endocrine organ, releasing hormones beyond estrogen and other cytokines Dodds et al.

Particularly the visceral fat is considered a unique pathogenic fat depot that has a negative impact on bone and muscle Gilsanz et al.

Visceral fat secretes pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha TNF-αinterleukin 1 and 6 IL-1 and IL-6 and C-reactive protein in high inflammatory statesall known as strong pro-inflammatory cytokines, promoting and sustaining LGCI beyond the aging processes Pradhan et al.

It is increasingly recognized that mechanisms of LGCI cause derangement of all three tissues simultaneously and propagate more fat deposition, maintaining disordered conditions Ilich et al.

It is now clear that there is a very fine inflection point indicating the changing effect of body fat on bone. As discussed above, different researchers used different levels for obesity classification in women, depending on the studied population and parameters examined Ilich et al.

Moreover, Bosch and coworkers identified a cutoff of In other words, weight gain in older adults leads to greater visceral fat accumulation and possibly long-term bone and muscle impairments as a consequence.

This all disputes the notion that obesity is protective for bone compositioh as once thought, especially in aging women Ilich et al. However, the relationship between obesity and bone is of a complex nature as addressed in recent reviews Shapses et al.

Bone marrow adipose tissue MAT increases with aging, obesity and in osteoporosis, thereby also interconnecting bone and fat tissues. Recent studies show a negative correlation between MAT and BMD Liu et al.

Regarding adiposity and muscle connection, a prospective study by Kim et al. However, this study was performed in Korean women and might not be applicable for other ethnicities.

This decrease in muscle mass did not result in a parallel change in BMI, as fat appeared to replace the lost muscle compoeition, possibly infiltrating it Zhang et al. Multiple studies support a causal role of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6 in muscle wasting and their elevated serum concentration in sarcopenia and sarcopenic obesity Schaap et al.

Additionally, muscle mass is the main determinant of resting metabolic rate energy expenditure and loss of muscle would in turn also promote weight gain and fat accumulation. Hence, muscle and bone loss and visceral fat accumulation with aging aggravated by overall excess of adiposity, appear to be part of a cycle where increased inflammation from visceral fat compositioj sarcopenia and osteopenia, promotes obesity and ultimately, in turn, a greater visceral fat accumulation Ilich et al.

Another consequence of aging recently recognized in older adults and briefly mentioned aboveis myosteatosisor fat infiltration into muscle. As skeletal muscle ages, muscle fat in the form of intra- and extra-myocellular adipocytes droplets of triglyceride is embedded within and between muscle fibers resulting in increased storage of lipid droplets Lang et al.

Myosteatosis is seen in older women, even if they do not appear clinically obese or overweight, but it could also be seen in obese younger individuals, as shown recently Stefanaki et al. In the same manner, we propose here a new term, osteosteatosisindicating increased adipogenesis in bone marrow.

Although the term osteosteatosis has not been officially proposed until now, there is plenty of composiion showing that the MSC in bone marrow precursors of both adipocytes and osteoblasts may favor adipogenic differentiation in the presence of excessive adiposity Pittenger et al.

Although fat infiltration is also a normal aging process, its elevation in an obesogenic environment exacerbates other processes, like loss of bone or muscle. Therefore, osteosteatosis and myosteatosis, combined with age-related loss of bone and muscle mass, contribute even more to loss of bone and muscle strength and overall function Visser et al.

Loss of functionality and inadequate mobility set an older adult at increased risk for falls and bone fractures. Even more so, those suffering from osteosarcopenic obesity showed significantly poorer performance in handgrip strength, balance and walking speed, compared to each other group Ilich et al.

Increasingly, recent research is focusing on the agiing among bone, muscle and fat tissues compositin connecting some major functional impairments or nutritional deficiencies with osteosarcopenic obesity Boy Ilich et al.

: Body composition and aging

Chapter 6: Body Composition Changes – Nutrition in Aging	Previous studies have also examined interrelationships between changes in muscle strength, function and body composition. Changes in muscle strength and function in relation to changes in BMD among adults and children have been reported in a recent systematic review and meta-analysis [ 22 ]. Greater loss of arm lean mass was associated with accelerated loss of grip strength in a cohort of Afro-Caribbean men [ 49 ]. These findings are in agreement with our results from the Health ABC Study. There are several potential mechanisms that may explain why longitudinal decreases in muscle mass, strength and BMD are correlated with one another in later life. First, the relationship between loss of muscle mass and strength may be bidirectional. Reductions in strength may result in declines in physical function and activity, leading to disuse-induced muscle wasting; simultaneously, declines in muscle mass and quality due to losses in fast-twitch muscle fibres, fat infiltration of skeletal muscle and increased inflammation may result in declines in strength and physical function [ 50 ]. Second, correlations between muscle mass and strength and BMD in older age are expected from both cellular and physiological perspectives. Cellular similarities include a shared mesenchymal stem cell origin between myoblasts and osteocytes [ 51 ]. Physiologically, reductions in strength lead to weaker forces on bone, resulting in greater bone resorption than formation according to the mechanostat theory [ 20 , 52 ]. Finally, developmental, genetic, endocrine and lifestyle factors, such as smoking, physical activity and diet quality are established determinants of both muscle and bone aging [ 19 ], and may therefore contribute to correlations between declines in muscle and bone parameters. A key strength of this study is the measurement of a wide range of musculoskeletal and body composition parameters in a single, well-characterised cohort. In contrast, studies which compare changes in musculoskeletal parameters across cohorts are likely to be limited because heterogeneous age ranges and nationalities of participants are likely to affect comparability of results. Another strength of the Health ABC Study is that parameters have been measured repeatedly over many follow-ups, enabling a comprehensive assessment of change. This study has some limitations. Participants were free of mobility disability at baseline. This limits the generalisability of the findings to the wider population of community-dwelling older people in this age range and may have led to an underestimation of the magnitude of decline in these trajectories. Death and drop-outs during follow-up result in healthier participants remaining in the study who may be more likely to have slower rates of decline in musculoskeletal parameters. However, the inclusion of participants with two or more measures for examination of trajectories and calculation of percentage changes means that participants with short follow-ups are included in these analyses. Furthermore, the similarity of the trajectories for participants with observations at all time-points and those for participants with two or more repeated measures eFigure 4 in Online Resource suggests that drop-outs have only a small effect on the mean trajectories observed. Our findings have important implications. 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Singer NG, Caplan AI Mesenchymal stem cells: mechanisms of inflammation. Annu Rev Pathol — Frost HM Bone's mechanostat: a update. Anat Rec A — Download references. Department of Agriculture USDA , under agreement No. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the USDA. The authors thank the participants of the Health, Aging and Body Composition Study as well as members of the scientific and data collection teams. MRC Lifecourse Epidemiology Unit, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK. Leo D. Westbury, Holly E. Syddall, Nicholas R. Fuggle, Elaine M. Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand. Department of Epidemiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA. Laboratory of Epidemiology and Population Sciences, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, USA. Nutrition, Exercise Physiology, and Sarcopenia Laboratory, Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging, Tufts University, Boston, USA. NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University of Southampton and University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK. NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. LW conducted the statistical analysis and wrote the first draft of the manuscript; HES provided guidance regarding the statistical analysis and made extensive contributions to the content of the manuscript; NRF contributed to the literature review and the interpretation of the findings; EMD and CC designed the study; JAC, EJS and ABN were investigators of the Health ABC Study. All authors made substantial contributions to the manuscript and approved the final version. Correspondence to Cyrus Cooper. CC reports personal fees outside the submitted work from Alliance for Better Bone Health, Amgen, Eli Lilly, GSK, Medtronic, Merck, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche, Servier, Takeda and UCB. EMD reports personal fees outside the submitted work from Pfizer Healthcare and from the UCB Discussion panel. RAF reports grants from National Institutes of Health National Institute on Aging and the USDA, during the conduct of the study; grants, personal fees and other from Axcella Health, other from Inside Tracker, grants and personal fees from Biophytis, grants and personal fees from Astellas, personal fees from Cytokinetics, personal fees from Amazentis, grants and personal fees from Nestle', personal fees from Glaxo Smith Kline, outside the submitted work. LDW, HES, NRF, JAC, EJS and ABN declare that they have no conflicts of interest. The study was approved by the institutional review boards at the University of Tennessee and the University of Pittsburgh. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Reprints and permissions. Westbury, L. et al. Long-term rates of change in musculoskeletal aging and body composition: findings from the Health, Aging and Body Composition Study. Calcif Tissue Int , — Download citation. Received : 18 December Accepted : 19 February Published : 03 March Issue Date : June Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Download PDF. Abstract Musculoskeletal disorders are common among older people. Individual and joint trajectories of change in bone, lean mass and physical performance in older men Article Open access 05 May Correlates of Level and Loss of Grip Strength in Later Life: Findings from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing and the Hertfordshire Cohort Study Article Open access 22 October Body Composition Across the Adult Lifespan in African Caribbean Men: The Tobago Longitudinal Study of Aging Article 07 January Use our pre-submission checklist Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript. Introduction Musculoskeletal disorders are common among older people and are a leading cause of morbidity worldwide [ 1 ]. Methods The Health, Aging and Body Composition Study The Health ABC Study comprises US men and women aged 70—79 years at baseline who were recruited in — Ascertainment of Participant Characteristics The study methodology has been described in detail previously [ 23 ]. Statistical Methods Baseline participant characteristics were described using means and standard deviations SD , medians and interquartile ranges, or frequency and percentage distributions as appropriate. Results Baseline Participant Characteristics Baseline participant characteristics among the analysis sample of Health ABC participants according to sex and race are presented in Table 1. In parallel with the increasing aging of the population, there is a parallel increase of overweight and obese individuals among older adults 2. Normal aging involves important changes to body composition, including decreased muscle mass and increased fat mass 3. Basal metabolism, for the majority of the elderly, is the main daily energetic expenditure and its decrease with age provides one explanation for the tendency to gain weight, with age. In addition to this physiological statement, lifestyle changes in aged people and the associated reduction in physical activity level favors weight increase with age. Total body fat peaks at about 65—70 years, while in advanced old age it decreases. Aging, indeed, modifies adipose tissue accumulation and redistribution resulting in accumulation of abdominal fat. These age-related changes alter many physiological functions including inflammation and contribute to age-related diseases such as cardiovascular events, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, stroke, and several types of cancer 4. However, to what extent, the age-related adipose tissue remodeling impacts the health status in elderly is incompletely understood. To highlight and clarify the main age-related changes in adipose tissue and discuss its implications on health status with particular regard to age-related diseases, we dedicated a Research Topic to the alteration of lipid storage, the redistribution and the types of fat, the production of different mediators contributing to a pro-inflammatory status in aging. Conte et al. are setting the stage, discussing the evident evolutionarily advantage provided by this tissue common among all animal species. Maintaining the correct distribution of body fat seems crucial for health and longevity. Interestingly, it seems that while a lower threshold of fat mass exists, it does not appear existing an upper one. In human and in many animals, adipose tissue can be accumulated in very large amounts. Most probably, an upper limit was not established by natural selection because a large accumulation of body fat in the wild is uncommon, unlike what we are observing during modern times in our species. Although the health implication of excessive body fat is evident, as they discuss, they also propose that a suitable amount of fat is probably an important feature for reaching extended longevity Conte et al. Because of its simplicity, BMI is broadly used as a surrogate for body fat, although it is highly imprecise. For example, a bodybuilder with a low percentage of body fat could fall in the obese category. Ponti et al. present how body composition is different at different ages, stressing that there is not only an increase in body fat but also a redistribution of body mass with age. In particular, fat mainly increases in the trunk largely visceral fat , but not in arms or legs. A major difference also exists between male and female older adults likely contributing to the sex-difference in the prevalence of age-related diseases. Zoico et al. focus on the significance of changes happening during aging in two subcategories of body fat: brown adipose tissue BAT and beige adipose tissue, fat tissues rich in mitochondria with the univocal brown or conditional beige function of converting stored energy into heat. Adipose tissue is a recognized endocrine organ, producing a variety of adipokines, whose levels tend to increase with aging. Arai et al. focus on the roles and significance of adiponectin, an adipokine whose levels are elevated in centenarians. In contrast to the majority of other adipokines, its plasma levels are inversely related to body fat. In this report, the authors describe how this adipokine is considered highly beneficial for longevity, possibly contributing to enhancing insulin sensitivity. They also describe some interesting paradoxes related to adiponectin that challenge its beneficial role: the observed association between higher adiponectin level and mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease and with frailty in elderly subjects. They propose a solution to these paradoxes introducing the concept of adiponectin resistance: higher adiponectin levels, in their view, is possibly a compensatory mechanism in response to inflammation and oxidative stress. In light of the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic affecting prevalently the elderly 5 , an important topic is the role of the process of aging in the susceptibility to infectious diseases. Obesity, as it increases with age, exerts a cumulative effect. Obese individuals are increasingly vulnerable to fungal, bacterial, and viral infection. Frasca and McElhaney present an overview of the roles of obesity on the immune response to respiratory tract infection. Specifically, they analyze the risk for the elderly represented by pneumococcus infection, highlighting the presence of an interesting obesity paradox: it appears that obesity is protective against the more serious complications of this bacterial infection. This stresses the need to investigate further, how obesity is modulating our immune response Frasca and McElhaney. Salvestrini et al. look from further away at the interrelationship between excess body fat and aging. Their considerations stem from a reflection on the experimental paradigm of life span extension by caloric restriction, specifically on how best to consider control animals when translating experimental results to human 6. If a control animal, ad libitum fed, has to be considered an animal with no excess fat, equivalent to a normal weight human BMI between If, instead, as many authors are proposing [reviewed in 6 ], control animals in many instances should be considered the equivalent of obese humans, then the lifespan-extending capacity of CR is simply communicating that obesity has a life shortening effect, which is well-known from epidemiological evidence. From these considerations Salvestrini et al. have looked at obesity under the lens of the hallmarks of aging as listed by López-Otín et al. Although the increase of body fat with age remains a major risk factor for age-related diseases, several studies are needed to disentangle the complex network of metabolic, endocrinological, and immunological mediators that are involved. Many studies demonstrated the peculiarity of these individuals 8 , 9 , however little is known about the amount and kind of adipose tissue they have. Future researches are needed to investigate the age-related remodeling of body fat including also very old people. AL wrote the initial draft. AS and DM implemented and revised it. All authors gave final approval of the submitted version. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Frontiers | Editorial: Adipose Tissue: Which Role in Aging and Longevity?	Open access funding provided by University of Helsinki Body composition and aging Helsinki University Central Hospital. Bdoy mass, Bofy is mostly composed of skeletal muscle tissue, has sging implications although Post-game meal suggestions impact on health appear to be less striking than that of fat mass in the general population [ 6 ]. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Giuli, C. Muscle as endocrine organ Muscle tissue has just begun to be investigated as an endocrine organ. Inflammatory links between obesity and metabolic disease. United States Census Bureau.
References	J Appl Physiol Check for updates. Our study demonstrated that when obesity was classified using body fat percentage, muscle mass was significantly associated with muscle strength in non-obese older adults. Muscle tissue has just begun to be investigated as an endocrine organ. Reid IR Relationships between fat and bone. Drugs Aging , 31, 33—
Table of Contents	Grip strength values were set to missing for participants with severe hand pain or recent surgery. Sinha, S. Height and weight measurements were undertaken using standardised techniques adapted from the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry ISAK protocol. Hof P. In , Measuring disability in older adults: The International Classification System of Functioning, Disability and Health ICF framework.

Bofy muscle and higher Health benefits of Polyphenols mass Lifestyle choices to manage hypertension Body composition and aging of older adults; their physical function is also characterized by slower gait speed and weaker compositiom. Body composition and aging, the association between specific body composition and physical function is unclear. We examined the association Boxy body Bidy and physical Body composition and aging using combined cross-sectional data ane 1, participants from 13 clinical studies at Wake Forest University that used a consistent battery of tests. Data at enrollment from each study using uniform tools including body mass index BMIdual energy x-ray absorptiometry, physical performance assessment using 4 m walk speed, five chair rise time, handgrip strength, short physical performance battery 17and Pepper Assessment Tool for Disability were analyzed. Increased BMI was associated with slower walk speed, lower short physical performance battery, and higher Pepper Assessment Tool for Disability score. Increased percentage of body fat was associated with slower walk speed, lower hand grip strength, lower short physical performance battery scores, and higher Pepper Assessment Tool for Disability scores.

Body composition and aging -

a School of Kinesiology, and Departments of Clinical Neurological Sciences and. Timothy J. Doherty Timothy J. b Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Schulich School of Medicine, University of Western Ontario, London, Ont.

Open the PDF Link PDF for 94 - Sarcopenia: Prevalence, Mechanisms, and Functional Consequences in another window. a Department of Physiology, Human Physiology Unit and Interuniversity Institute of Myology, University of Pavia, Pavia, and. Enzo Nisoli Enzo Nisoli. b Department of Pharmacology, Chemotherapy and Medical Toxicology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.

Open the PDF Link PDF for - mTOR Signaling as a Target of Amino Acid Treatment of the Age-Related Sarcopenia in another window.

Gianni Parise ; Gianni Parise. a Departments of Kinesiology and. b Medical Physics and Applied Radiation Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ont.

Michael De Lisio Michael De Lisio. Open the PDF Link PDF for - Mitochondrial Theory of Aging in Human Age-Related Sarcopenia in another window.

Derek M Huffman Derek M Huffman. Department of Medicine and Institute for Aging Research, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, N.

Open the PDF Link PDF for - Exercise as a Calorie Restriction Mimetic: Implications for Improving Healthy Aging and Longevity in another window.

Farhan A Syed ; Farhan A Syed. a College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. Jameel Iqbal ; Jameel Iqbal. b The Mount Sinai Bone Program, and Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, N.

Yuanzhen Peng ; Yuanzhen Peng. Li Sun ; Li Sun. Mone Zaidi Mone Zaidi. Open the PDF Link PDF for - Clinical, Cellular and Molecular Phenotypes of Aging Bone in another window. Open the PDF Link PDF for - Author Index in another window. Open the PDF Link PDF for - Subject Index in another window.

Karger International S. Karger AG P. O Box, CH Basel Switzerland Allschwilerstrasse 10, CH Basel. Facebook LinkedIn X YouTube WeChat Experience Blog. All statistical analyses were completed using the statistical software IBM SPSS version Descriptive statistics for the study population according to sex are presented in Table 1.

The mean ± SD age of participants was Males were taller, heavier and had a lower body fat percentage than females, but these differences were not significant. The mean BMI for this study population fell in the overweight BMI category Using BMI categories, In males and females, 9.

The prevalence of low muscle mass was 2. Appendicular skeletal muscle mass index and muscle strength were higher in males compared with females, this difference was significant for muscle strength only Table 1. When exploring the association between muscle strength and muscle mass according to obesity classification using body fat percentage, muscle mass was significantly associated with muscle strength in non-obese males and females.

However, in participants with obesity, muscle mass was no longer associated with muscle strength Tables 4 and 5. In this cross-sectional study, we evaluated the relationship between muscle strength, muscle mass, and body fat percentage in older adults living in Auckland, NZ.

The findings indicate that muscle strength was associated with muscle mass. The magnitude of this association was greater in males than females, with addition of body fat percentage slightly increasing the ability of the model to predict muscle strength.

When exploring the association between muscle strength and muscle mass according to obesity classification using body fat percentage, muscle mass was associated with muscle strength in non-obese participants.

However, this association was not observed in older adults who were classified as obese. This indicates that body fat percentage should be considered when measuring associations between muscle mass and muscle strength in older adults.

We found a higher prevalence of participants with obesity using body fat percentage classifications This result was as expected, as BMI has been shown to underestimate adiposity in older adults [ 37 ]. A recent survey in New Zealand using BMI classifications reported that the prevalence of obesity in older adults between 65—74 years was The lower level of obesity reported in our population may reflect our recruitment inadvertently targeting healthy older adults.

We also identified 3. The lack of studies reporting the prevalence of low muscle strength and the application of different cut-off values makes it difficult to compare studies.

In this cohort, we applied the updated cut off values of low muscle strength defined by the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People EWGSOP2. A nationally representative sample of Brazilians aged 65 years and older using the same cut-off values as our study observed a higher prevalence of low muscle strength Other studies which applied the older cut off values defined by the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People EWGSOP , observed a higher prevalence of low muscle strength of The higher prevalence observed in these groups, is possibly explained by the inclusion of people older than 74 years, and a potentially less healthy population than those participants included in our study.

The prevalence of low ASMI was 6. The higher percentage in the study appears to be explained by the inclusion of adults over the ages of 74 years.

Our results provide evidence that muscle mass is positively associated with muscle strength in older men and women. This result aligns with the literature [ 43 , 44 ] and suggests that efforts to maintain muscle mass should have a significant effect on preserving strength in older adults.

When stratified by sex, we observed strong evidence that muscle mass was significantly associated, but not a major contributor to muscle strength in older men and women.

In a regression model taking into account muscle mass, it was shown that an increase of 1 unit muscle mass will increase the value of muscle strength by 0. These results highlight not only the importance of increasing muscle mass, but also the importance of decreasing body fat percentage to preserve muscle strength in older adults.

The cross-sectional nature of our data impedes any causal inference. Nevertheless, the results from our study provide justification for further prospective research that evaluates the effects of interventions, which are aimed at optimising body composition and muscle strength in older adults.

To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the role of obesity classification based on body fat percentage in the relationship between muscle strength and muscle mass. Results from multiple linear regression analyses provide evidence supporting the important role of obesity classification according to body fat percentage when investigating the relationship between muscle strength and muscle mass.

Our study demonstrated that when obesity was classified using body fat percentage, muscle mass was significantly associated with muscle strength in non-obese older adults.

However, an association between muscle strength and muscle mass was not observed in older adults categorised as obese. The accumulation of intramuscular lipid content or poor muscle quality , which is seen in people with obesity may explain the influence of obesity in the relationship between muscle strength and muscle mass.

Goodpaster et al. reported that higher intramuscular lipid content is associated with lower muscle strength, independent of muscle mass [ 45 ].

Also, accumulation of intramuscular lipid content is known to be associated with insulin insensitivity, inflammation and functional deficits in skeletal muscle.

It will be important in the future to continue to focus on understanding predictors of muscle strength in older adults with obesity in order to provide appropriate interventions to increase muscle strength.

There were significant strengths to our study. The relatively large sample size permits us to examine whether the relationship between muscle strength and muscle mass was similar in males and females. Also, it is possible that the inclusion of community-dwelling healthy older adults provides the opportunity to identify issues and promote preventative action in early old age.

Furthermore, the use of DXA is an accurate measure of body composition. However, in contrast to magnetic resonance imaging MRI or computed tomography CT DXA cannot detect intramuscular fat from muscle mass nor distinguish the composition of muscle [ 46 , 47 ].

This cross-sectional study limits the ability to detect causality; hence, only associations were discussed. Other limitations are the population group, which was not representative of the New Zealand population, as this cohort was composed of a convenience volunteer sample of men and women aged 65—74 years living in the community.

The classification by body fat percentage for obesity may also be perceived as a limitation given the arbitrary nature of the cut-off points. Finally, we did not assess lower extremity muscle strength, which is a more direct predictor of falls.

However, grip strength is associated with lower-body muscle strength [ 48 ] and a strong predictor of disability [ 49 ]. Muscle mass and body fat percentage were predictors of muscle strength in this cohort.

Muscle mass was associated with muscle strength in non-obese older adults whereas, there was no association between muscle mass and muscle strength in older adults who were classified as obese. This indicates that obesity classification plays an important role in the relationship between muscle strength and muscle mass in older adults.

We suggest that this could be mainly attributed to muscle quality, which could be a contributor of muscle strength in older adults who are obese.

Further research should focus on identifying predictors of muscle strength in older adults with obesity.

We thank the REACH team including Cassie Slade for managing the recruitment of participants and data collection; and Karen Mumme, Harriet Guy, Angela Yu, and Nicola Gillies for assistance with data collection and data entry.

Browse Subject Areas? Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field. Article Authors Metrics Comments Media Coverage Reader Comments Figures. Abstract Background Aging is associated with decreases in muscle strength and simultaneous changes in body composition, including decreases in muscle mass, muscle quality and increases in adiposity.

Conclusions Body fat percentage should be considered when measuring associations between muscle mass and muscle strength in older adults. Introduction Globally and in New Zealand the proportion of older adults is increasing [ 1 ]. Materials and methods 2. Study design This study was a secondary aim of the Researching Eating, Activity and Cognitive Health REACH Study.

Study participants and procedures Participants included men and women aged 65—74 years, living independently in Auckland, NZ. Data collection All participants visited the Human Nutrition Research Unit on one occasion for collection of data as part of the wider REACH study.

Statistical analysis Continuous data were assessed for normality using Shapiro Wilcoxon tests and visual assessment of histograms. Download: PPT. Table 1. Characteristics of study participants by sex a , b.

Fig 1. Table 2. Results of multiple linear regression modelling on the relationship between muscle strength, mass and body fat percentage in older females. Table 3. Results of multiple linear regression modelling on the relationship between muscle strength, mass and body fat percentage in older males.

Table 4. Results of multiple linear regression modelling on the effect of obesity in the relationship between muscle strength and mass in older females. Table 5. Results of multiple linear regression modelling on the effect of obesity in the relationship between muscle strength and mass in older males.

Discussion In this cross-sectional study, we evaluated the relationship between muscle strength, muscle mass, and body fat percentage in older adults living in Auckland, NZ.

Prevalence of obesity, low muscle strength and low muscle mass We found a higher prevalence of participants with obesity using body fat percentage classifications Association between body composition and muscle strength Our results provide evidence that muscle mass is positively associated with muscle strength in older men and women.

The role of obesity classification in the relationship between muscle strength and muscle mass To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the role of obesity classification based on body fat percentage in the relationship between muscle strength and muscle mass.

Conclusions Muscle mass and body fat percentage were predictors of muscle strength in this cohort. Supporting information. S1 File. s SAV. Acknowledgments We thank the REACH team including Cassie Slade for managing the recruitment of participants and data collection; and Karen Mumme, Harriet Guy, Angela Yu, and Nicola Gillies for assistance with data collection and data entry.

References 1. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Statistics New Zealand. A statistical volume, Wellington. Robertson MC, Campbell AJ. Falling costs: the case for investment. Women lose on average approximately inches and men lose about inches by the age of This shrinkage is caused by the loss of muscle mass in our torsos.

From this, we can develop a stooped posture that results in us looking even shorter. This loss of height can often lead to an increase in health risks, most commonly breaking a hip. There are some concrete steps you can take to offset the slower metabolism and weight gain, build strong muscles and bone density, and lessen shrinkage in height.

None of these suggestions are earth-shaking new ideas. They are the same suggestions for healthy living. Strength training, weight-bearing activities like dancing and walking, resistance exercises like weightlifting, and yoga are several activities that can help you achieve positive results for your body composition.

It is recommended that seniors who are 65 or older should get at least 2. This equals to about 30 minutes each day. Or you should get approximately 1 hour and 15 minutes of vigorous exercise such as jogging each week.

A healthy diet includes vegetables and fruits, whole grains, and the right amounts of healthy fats. Included in the protein is at least one serving of milk or yogurt.

You should also choose foods with low sodium amounts. Good sources of vitamin D in addition to the natural rays of the sun include fortified drinks and cereals, fatty fish eggs, and mushrooms.

And foods rich in calcium include tofu, yogurt, and any variety of leafy greens.

Editorial on the Research Ocmposition Adipose Tissue: Which Role in Aging and Longevity? Since adn, Body composition and aging are living Body composition and aging aginh world where there are more people over age ahd than there are children under compoeition. Predictions indicate, if this trend continues, Grape Harvesting Techniques the yearthe number of people over 65 will be double the number of people under five 1. Consequently, an understanding of the optimal physiological, endocrinological, and anthropometric conditions associated with better health during aging is to be considered a priority topic. In parallel with the increasing aging of the population, there is a parallel increase of overweight and obese individuals among older adults 2. Normal aging involves important changes to body composition, including decreased muscle mass and increased fat mass 3.