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Which Is The Healthiest Bread? It's Not What You Think.

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Strengtheninng of nutrients that have been identified Metabolism Boosting Habits critical for the growth and function of immune cells include vitamin Citrus bioflavonoids for eye health, vitamin D, zinc, selenium, iron, and protein including the amino acid glutamine.

Diets that are limited in variety and lower in nutrients, such as consisting primarily of ultra-processed foods and lacking in minimally processed foods, can negatively affect a healthy immune system.

It is also believed that a Western diet high in refined sugar and red meat and low in fruits and vegetables can promote disturbances in healthy intestinal microorganisms, resulting in chronic inflammation of the gut, and associated suppressed immunity.

The microbiome is an internal metropolis of trillions of microorganisms or microbes that live in our bodies, mostly in the intestines. It is an area of intense and active research, as scientists are finding that the microbiome plays a key role in immune function.

The gut is a major site of immune activity and the production of antimicrobial proteins. A high-fiber plant-rich diet with plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes appear to support the growth and maintenance of beneficial microbes.

Certain helpful microbes break down fibers into short chain fatty acids, which have been shown to stimulate immune cell activity. These fibers are sometimes called prebiotics because they feed microbes.

Therefore, a diet containing probiotic and prebiotic foods may be beneficial. Probiotic foods contain live helpful bacteria, and prebiotic foods contain fiber and oligosaccharides that feed and maintain healthy colonies of those bacteria.

Animal studies have found that deficiencies in zincseleniumironcopper, folic acidand vitamins AB6CDand E can alter immune responses. Epidemiological studies find that those who are poorly nourished are at greater risk of bacterial, viral, and other infections. Eating a good quality diet, as depicted by the Healthy Eating Plate, can prevent deficiencies in these nutrients.

However, there are certain populations and situations in which one cannot always eat a variety of nutritious foods, or who have increased nutrient needs. In these cases a vitamin and mineral supplement may help to fill nutritional gaps.

Studies have shown that vitamin supplementation can improve immune responses in these groups. The elderly are a particularly high-risk group. The immune response generally declines with increasing age as the number and quality of immune cells decreases. This causes a higher risk of poorer outcomes if the elderly develop chronic or acute diseases.

In addition, about one-third of elderly in industrialized countries have nutrient deficiencies. Diet variety may also be limited due to budget constraints or lower interest in cooking for one person; poor dentition; mental impairment; or lack of transportation and community resources to obtain healthy food.

Megadose supplements many times the RDA do not appear justified, and can sometimes be harmful or even suppress the immune system e. Remember that vitamin supplements should not be considered a substitute for a good diet because no supplements contain all the benefits of healthful foods.

Several herbal supplements have been suggested to boost immune function. What does the research say? Diet Review: Anti-Inflammatory Diet. Food Safety, Nutrition, and Wellness during COVID Ask the Expert: The role of diet and nutritional supplements during COVID The contents of this website are for educational purposes and are not intended to offer personal medical advice.

You should seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Never disregard professional medical advice or delay in seeking it because of something you have read on this website. The Nutrition Source does not recommend or endorse any products.

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What Is Our Immune System? These barriers include: Skin that keeps out the majority of pathogens Mucus that traps pathogens Stomach acid that destroys pathogens Enzymes in our sweat and tears that help create anti-bacterial compounds Immune system cells that attack all foreign cells entering the body Adaptive or acquired immunity is a system that learns to recognize a pathogen.

Other conditions that trigger an immune response Antigens are substances that the body labels as foreign and harmful, which triggers immune cell activity. What factors can depress our immune system? Older age: As we age, our internal organs may become less efficient; immune-related organs like the thymus or bone marrow produce less immune cells needed to fight off infections.

Aging is sometimes associated with micronutrient deficiencies, which may worsen a declining immune function. Environmental toxins smoke and other particles contributing to air pollution, excessive alcohol : These substances can impair or suppress the normal activity of immune cells.

Excess weight: Obesity is associated with low-grade chronic inflammation. Fat tissue produces adipocytokines that can promote inflammatory processes. Chronic diseases: Autoimmune and immunodeficiency disorders attack and potentially disable immune cells.

Chronic mental stress: Stress releases hormones like cortisol that suppresses inflammation inflammation is initially needed to activate immune cells and the action of white blood cells. Lack of sleep and rest: Sleep is a time of restoration for the bodyduring which a type of cytokine is released that fights infection; too little sleep lowers the amount of these cytokines and other immune cells.

Does an Immune-Boosting Diet Exist? Probiotic foods include kefir, yogurt with live active cultures, fermented vegetables, sauerkraut, tempeh, kombucha tea, kimchi, and miso. Prebiotic foods include garlic, onions, leeks, asparagus, Jerusalem artichokes, dandelion greens, bananasand seaweed.

However, a more general rule is to eat a variety of fruits, vegetablesbeansand whole grains for dietary prebiotics. Chicken soup as medicine? Is there scientific evidence that it aids in healing? But when breaking down its ingredients, it does appear a worthwhile remedy to try.

Second, it provides fluids and electrolytes to prevent dehydration, which can easily occur with a fever. Lastly, a traditional chicken soup recipe supplies various nutrients involved in the immune system: protein and zinc from the chicken, vitamin A from carrots, vitamin C from celery and onions, and antioxidants in the onions and herbs.

A note on COVID The COVID pandemic is creating a range of unique and individual impacts—from food access issues, income disruptions, emotional distress, and beyond. References Childs CE, Calder PC, Miles EA. Diet and Immune Function. Green WD, Beck MA. Obesity impairs the adaptive immune response to influenza virus.

Annals of the American Thoracic Society. Guillin OM, Vindry C, Ohlmann T, Chavatte L. Selenium, selenoproteins and viral infection. Wessels I, Maywald M, Rink L. Zinc as a gatekeeper of immune function. Molendijk I, van der Marel S, Maljaars PW.

Towards a Food Pharmacy: Immunologic Modulation through Diet. Caballero S, Pamer EG. Microbiota-mediated inflammation and antimicrobial defense in the intestine.

: Immunity strengthening nutrients

Are There Foods That Can Help Boost Your Immunity? Here's What a Dietitian Says	Some studies have shown that vitamin C appears to prevent and treat respiratory and systemic infections. Adults only need about 15 mg of vitamin E each day. Some experiments with mice suggest that cold exposure might reduce the ability to cope with infection. Martineau AR, Jolliffe DA, Hooper RL, Greenberg L, Aloia JF, Bergman P, Dubnov-Raz G, Esposito S, Ganmaa D, Ginde AA, Goodall EC. However, more research is necessary to confirm whether or not it can effectively prevent illness. Life can get busy and sometimes overwhelming, and low energy can make it even harder to cope with day-to-day stressors.
You Are What You Eat: Choose Foods that Boost Immunity and Fight Infection	Research has suggested that EGCG may have antiviral properties that support the immune system. The fermentation process black tea goes through destroys a lot of the EGCG. Green tea, on the other hand, is steamed and not fermented, so the EGCG is preserved. Papayas also have a digestive enzyme called papain that has anti-inflammatory effects. Papayas have decent amounts of potassium , magnesium, and folate , all of which are beneficial to your overall health. Like papayas, kiwis are a rich source of essential nutrients, including folate, potassium, vitamin K , and vitamin C. The soup may help lower inflammation, which could improve symptoms of a cold. Poultry, such as chicken and turkey, is high in vitamin B6. About 3 ounces of light turkey or chicken meat contains nearly one-third of your daily recommended amount of B6. Vitamin B6 is an important player in many of the chemical reactions that happen in the body. Stock or broth made by boiling chicken bones contains gelatin , chondroitin, and other nutrients helpful for gut healing and immunity. Too much zinc can actually inhibit immune system function. You may want to focus on eating a balanced diet with plenty of fresh foods and whole grains, engage in at least minutes of physical activity per week, get enough sleep, manage stress with deep breathing or talk therapy, avoid or quit smoking, and limit alcohol consumption. Preliminary research suggests vitamin C may be involved in the development and function of white blood cells. It seems vitamin C may improve the reproduction of B- and T-cells , which are important white blood cells for the immune system. The amount of vitamin C needed for increasing white blood cells may depend on the condition and overall health needs. More research in humans is needed to better understand the link between vitamin C and white blood cells. To raise your white blood cell count , you may want to avoid alcohol and tobacco use, take Omega-3s and zinc, and eat a balanced diet. For example, a study found that the Mediterranean diet had an effect on the white blood cell counts of adults at risk for cardiovascular disease. Depending on the cause of low white blood cells, you may also need to take medications like myeloid growth factors. Antiviral foods may include fermented vegetables kimchi , fermented milk yogurt and kefir , herbs oregano, fennel, peppermint, and aloe vera , garlic, ginger, turmeric, black cumin, cinnamon, licorice root, mushrooms, and citrus fruits. Some foods may boost your immune system while others will help with their antimicrobial properties. This means they may help fight bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens that cause infections. Examples include herbs and spices oregano , cinnamon , clove , and rosemary , cruciferous vegetables kale and rutabaga , citrus fruits, parsley , and a wide range of other plant-based foods. Eating a variety of vegetables may help you boost your immune system. Red peppers, spinach, and broccoli are good choices, as well as ginger, turmeric, and garlic. Eating all types of fresh fruits regularly may help your immune system function well. Bananas, in particular, contain a substance called lectin. One study in rodents found that banana lectin may enhance the immune system. Fresh foods can provide our bodies with the nutrients our immune system needs to work correctly. You need a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, herbs, and spices in your diet to enable your body to stay as healthy as possible. Good choices of foods to boost the immune system include citrus fruits, spinach, almonds, papaya, and green tea. Although eating a balanced diet is key to boosting your immunity, foods alone cannot and should not replace medical treatment, unless your healthcare professional recommends it. Our experts continually monitor the health and wellness space, and we update our articles when new information becomes available. VIEW ALL HISTORY. Consider these tips for choosing the right vitamins and supplements for your needs. Life can get busy and sometimes overwhelming, and low energy can make it even harder to cope with day-to-day stressors. Here are some tips to help you…. You've heard of probiotics, but what about prebiotics? This article explains what prebiotics are and lists the benefits and downsides — plus how to…. Jamie L. Pronschinske is a dietitian in La Crosse , Wisconsin. Skip to main content. Posted By. Jamie Pronschinske, RDN, CD Nutrition. Recent Posts. Speaking of Health. Topics in this Post. A few key micronutrients have been identified as critical for the growth and function of immune cells, including: Iron Iron is a component of enzymes critical for immune cell function. Sources include red meat, beans, nuts and fortified breakfast cereals. Vitamin A Vitamin A helps protect against infections by keeping skin and tissues in the mouth, stomach, intestines and respiratory system healthy. Sources include orange and red fruits, and vegetables like carrots, apricots and bell peppers. Vitamin C Vitamin C stimulates the formation of antibodies, and the production, function and movement of white blood cells. Sources include citrus fruits like oranges, grapefruit, strawberries and tomatoes. Vitamin D Vitamin D helps regulate antimicrobial proteins that can directly kill pathogens. Sources include sunlight; fatty fish, like salmon; egg yolks; and fortified dairy. Vitamin E Vitamin E works as an antioxidant to protect the integrity of cell membranes from damage caused by free radicals. Sources include seeds, nuts, vegetables oils and peanut butter. Not a fan of eggs? People around the world have turned to mushrooms for a healthy immune system for centuries, and co ntemporary researchers now know why. Like yogurt, kefir, a fermented yogurt drink, contains gut- and immune-boosting probiotics. Salmon, mackerel, and herring are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, which reduce inflammation , increasing airflow and protecting lungs from colds and respiratory infections salmon is another vitamin D source, too. One animal study also found that the nutrient may help ward off various strains of the flu. As we all probably know, citrus fruits like oranges and grapefruit are high in vitamin C, a nutrient that is, like the orange juice commercials say, essential for immune function. More than just a salty summer snack meant for baseball games, Lofton points out that sunflower seeds are high in vitamin E, an antioxidant that can help protect cells from damage. Blackberries are high in antioxidants, plant compounds that can help shield the body from environmental stressors and germs, says Lofton. They also contain fiber and vitamin C, which support a healthy immune system and gut. If you eat a plant-based diet and are looking to up your protein intake for immunity function, Weiler recommends having a legume salad or a side of baked beans. According to the United States Department of Agriculture USDA , a cup of cooked lentils boasts 18 g of protein. The satisfyingly crunchy snack also has a high water content, which can boost hydration for immune and digestive systems in need. Kiwi contains vitamin E and water, which translates to protection and hydration essential to all bodily systems. Blueberries are abundant in polyphenols, an antioxidant that protects against inflammation. Brazil nuts are high in selenium, explains Weiler. Selenium, via selenoproteins and enzymes, has antioxidant properties that help to break down peroxides that can damage tissues and DNA, per Harvard T. Chan School of Public Health. Additional reporting by Alisa Hrustic. Kayla Blanton is a freelance writer-editor who covers health, nutrition, and lifestyle topics for various publications including Prevention , Everyday Health , SELF, People , and more. The 15 Best Protein Powders for Smoothie Making. Does Chlorophyll Water Really Work? Variety of Protein May Lower Risk of Hypertension.
Related Posts	Vitamin C is perhaps the most popular supplement taken to strengthenibg against infection due to BMR calculator for women important role in immune health. Immuntiy Trust Us? She recommends Holistic health care pork as another zinc source in a Immune-boosting antioxidant rich foods diet, be strengtuening a Holistic health care pork chop nutriennts tenderloin. While the jury strengthenlng still out on whether or not vitamin C can truly prevent a cold, a review of research suggests supplementing with C can help stave off respiratory infections—or at the very least, help reduce the severity and length of your symptoms if you fall ill. Nutrition Evidence Based The 15 Best Supplements to Boost Your Immune System Right Now. It serves as protection against any foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi that may enter your body and cause harm. Imkunity may boost the immune system, as it contains many essential nutriens and antioxidants, including :.
The best foods for boosting your immune system	Broccoli is another source of vitamin C. It also contains potent antioxidants, such as sulforaphane. For these reasons, it is a good choice of vegetable to eat regularly to support immune system health. Sweet potatoes are rich in beta carotene , a type of antioxidant that gives the skin of the potatoes its orange color. Beta carotene is a source of vitamin A. It helps to make skin healthy and may even provide some protection against skin damage from ultraviolet UV rays. Spinach may boost the immune system, as it contains many essential nutrients and antioxidants, including :. Vitamins C and E can help support the immune system. Research also indicates that flavonoids may help to prevent the common cold in otherwise healthy people. People use ginger in a variety of dishes and desserts, as well as in teas. According to a review, ginger has anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties and is likely to offer health benefits. However, more research is necessary to confirm whether or not it can effectively prevent illness. One review looked at whether taking garlic supplements containing allicin reduced the risk of getting a cold. The group of participants taking a placebo had more than double the number of colds between them than those taking the garlic supplements. However, the researchers concluded that more research is necessary to determine whether or not garlic can help to prevent colds. Green tea contains only a small amount of caffeine, so people can enjoy it as an alternative to black tea or coffee. Drinking it may also strengthen the immune system. As with blueberries, green tea contains flavonoids, which may reduce the risk of a cold. Kefir is a fermented drink that contains live cultures of bacteria that are beneficial for health. Initial research suggests that drinking kefir may boost the immune system. According to a review , various studies have shown that regular consumption of kefir can help with:. The majority of the research that supports this was carried out on animals or in a laboratory. Researchers need to perform additional studies to understand how kefir may prevent disease in humans. Sunflower seeds can make a tasty addition to salads or breakfast bowls. They are a rich source of vitamin E , an antioxidant. In the same way as other antioxidants, vitamin E improves immune function. It does this by fighting off free radicals, which can damage cells. Almonds are another excellent source of vitamin E. They also contain manganese, magnesium , and fiber. A small handful or a quarter of a cup of almonds is a healthful snack that may benefit the immune system. Oranges and kiwis are an excellent source of vitamin C, which is the vitamin that many people turn to when they feel a cold developing. While scientists are still not sure exactly how it helps, vitamin C may reduce the duration of common cold symptoms and improve the function of the human immune system. For people trying to avoid the sugar in fruit, red bell peppers are an excellent alternative source of vitamin C. As a dietitian, I have received numerous queries about recommended foods, supplements and diet patterns to boost immune function. While it is true that nutrition plays a large role in immune function, diet recommendations for the prevention of acute illnesses, like COVID and other viruses, don't look a whole lot different than general guidelines for healthy eating. I'll start by saying that the concept of boosting the immune system through diet is flawed, as boosting refers to something that is stimulated above the normal level. A good diet cannot boost the immune system, but it's important to maintain a functional immune system by avoiding immunodeficiency due to malnutrition or micronutrient deficiencies. It's important to note that no single food or nutrient will prevent illness. Also, the immune system is incredibly complex and influenced by a variety of other factors, including stress level, age, sleep and other medical conditions. It's advised that people obtain the nutrients above from food rather than supplements, as foods contain more health-promoting benefits. For most, a balanced diet will supply adequate amounts of nutrition to maintain a strong immune system. However, certain populations, like pregnant people, the elderly and those who are critically ill, cannot eat a variety of nutritious foods or have increased nutrients needs. In these cases, vitamin and mineral supplements can help fill nutritional gaps. Your health care provider may recommend further supplementation based on your lab values or medical status. Consult with your health care provider before beginning any supplement. Remember that supplements are not a substitute for a healthy diet, as they do not contain all the benefits in food. Spray a grill or broiler pan with cooking spray. Turn on grill or heat broiler. Place cod on grill or broiler pan, and brush lightly with oil. Grill or broil 3 to 4 inches from heat for about 10 minutes, or until fish flakes easily with a fork. The fish should reach an internal temperature of F. We also know that gut health plays a role in immunity, so try to eat a mix of prebiotic and probiotic foods. Think high-fiber prebiotics and fermented probiotics so vegetables, fruits, whole grains and yogurt, sauerkraut and kimchi. While whole foods are a healthy option, feel free to also rely on convenience items, like frozen and canned foods—especially if you're feeling under the weather and low on energy. And if you're craving a plate full of comforting pasta or a cheesy casserole, then go for it. Our body does a pretty good job of letting us know what it needs, and a craving like that likely means your body needs some extra calories to cope. Give yourself grace, definitely don't run to the store just to grab a food on this list and know that frozen and canned produce is a great way to get nutrients in your diet. There's no research to show elderberry can help with COVID There's some research to show that elderberry may help with cold and flu symptoms , reducing both severity and duration. However, we just don't know enough about it at this time and I wouldn't advise taking it right now but you know the drill—if you want to, chat with your doc first. Eating to support your immune system is about eating a variety of foods, so it's my opinion that all foods fit. Alcohol isn't the best sorry to all you cocktail lovers. It's dehydrating and can affect your immune system negatively , so drink in moderation or skip it altogether. Too much added sugar may also suppress your immune system temporarily according to research, but some is totally okay. It's also a good idea to do everything you can to help promote sleep we need sleep for our immune system. Avoid caffeine and alcohol too close to bedtime. Try these four tips for a better night's sleep from a sleep expert. I know the idea of a quick fix is much more enticing than the advice in this article but please, don't listen to an influencer or celebrity, especially if they have something to sell you. A well-balanced diet with lots of variety is key to supporting a healthy immune system. Stay hydrated. Move your body. Get some sleep. Take care of yourself. Try not to stress too much. And follow the advice of the medical experts at the CDC and your local public health department to keep yourself and others as safe as possible. The situation surrounding COVID continues to change quickly; it's possible that information or data has changed since publication. While EatingWell is trying to keep our stories as up-to-date as possible, we also encourage readers to stay informed on news and recommendations by using the CDC , WHO and their local public health department as resources. Welcome to The Beet. A weekly column where registered dietitians tackle buzzy nutrition topics and tell you what you need to know, with science and a little bit of sass. Use limited data to select advertising. Create profiles for personalised advertising.

Immunity strengthening nutrients -

If so, your illness may not last as long, and you may not feel so bad. According to the National Institutes of Health, there are many healing benefits of chicken soup. Your favorite recipe likely has properties that fight inflammation, promote hydration and get mucus flowing. Drink plenty of liquids, such as water, broth or sports drinks with electrolytes.

When taken before cold symptoms start, vitamin C may shorten the duration, but it doesn't keep you from getting sick. You may have heard that milk and other dairy products worsen congestion during an illness.

Research has not proven this to be true. Bring broth to a boil in a Dutch oven. Add carrots, celery, ginger and garlic; cook uncovered over medium heat until vegetables are just tender, about 20 minutes. Add noodles and chicken; simmer until the noodles are just tender, 8—10 minutes.

Stir in dill and lemon juice. Nutrition per serving 1½ cups : calories, 4 g total fat, 2 g saturated fat, 1 g monounsaturated fat, 0 g cholesterol, 38 g protein, 18 g carbohydrates, 2 g dietary fiber, g sodium.

Mayo Clinic Healthy Living Center Serves 4 Serve as condiment with chicken steak, fish, fried eggs or toast. Heat olive oil in a pan over medium heat.

Sautee onions for two minutes. Then add all the spices; toast and stir for two minutes. Add the tomatoes, apples, vinegar and sugar. Mix together and simmer over low heat for 20—30 minutes, stirring occasionally.

Season to taste. Nutrition per serving 2 tablespoons : 24 calories, 0. Kristi Wempen is a dietitian in Nutrition in Mankato , Minnesota. Skip to main content. Posted By.

Kristi Wempen, R. Recent Posts. Speaking of Health. Topics in this Post. Keep the immune system strong While having a healthy immune system is a plus during the season of colds and flu, consider these tips for keeping your immune system strong throughout the year: Focus on a balanced eating plan.

Crack down on spreading germs. Increase sleep, reduce stress. Research demonstrates that lack of sleep and increased stress contribute to illness and overall poor health, so: Adults should get seven to nine hours of sleep each day, while children need eight to 14 hours, depending on age.

While some people age healthily, the conclusion of many studies is that, compared with younger people, the elderly are more likely to contract infectious diseases and, even more importantly, more likely to die from them.

Respiratory infections, including, influenza , the COVID virus and particularly pneumonia are a leading cause of death in people over 65 worldwide. No one knows for sure why this happens, but some scientists observe that this increased risk correlates with a decrease in T cells, possibly from the thymus atrophying with age and producing fewer T cells to fight off infection.

Whether this decrease in thymus function explains the drop in T cells or whether other changes play a role is not fully understood.

Others are interested in whether the bone marrow becomes less efficient at producing the stem cells that give rise to the cells of the immune system.

A reduction in immune response to infections has been demonstrated by older people's response to vaccines. For example, studies of influenza vaccines have shown that for people over age 65, the vaccine is less effective compared to healthy children over age 2.

But despite the reduction in efficacy, vaccinations for influenza and S. pneumoniae have significantly lowered the rates of sickness and death in older people when compared with no vaccination.

There appears to be a connection between nutrition and immunity in the elderly. A form of malnutrition that is surprisingly common even in affluent countries is known as "micronutrient malnutrition.

Older people tend to eat less and often have less variety in their diets. One important question is whether dietary supplements may help older people maintain a healthier immune system.

Older people should discuss this question with their doctor. Like any fighting force, the immune system army marches on its stomach. Healthy immune system warriors need good, regular nourishment. Scientists have long recognized that people who live in poverty and are malnourished are more vulnerable to infectious diseases.

For example, researchers don't know whether any particular dietary factors, such as processed foods or high simple sugar intake, will have adversely affect immune function. There are still relatively few studies of the effects of nutrition on the immune system of humans.

There is some evidence that various micronutrient deficiencies — for example, deficiencies of zinc, selenium, iron, copper, folic acid, and vitamins A, B6, C, and E — alter immune responses in animals, as measured in the test tube.

However, the impact of these immune system changes on the health of animals is less clear, and the effect of similar deficiencies on the human immune response has yet to be assessed. So, what can you do?

If you suspect your diet is not providing you with all your micronutrient needs — maybe, for instance, you don't like vegetables — taking a daily multivitamin and mineral supplement may bring other health benefits, beyond any possibly beneficial effects on the immune system.

Taking megadoses of a single vitamin does not. More is not necessarily better. Walk into a store, and you will find bottles of pills and herbal preparations that claim to "support immunity" or otherwise boost the health of your immune system.

Although some preparations have been found to alter some components of immune function, thus far there is no evidence that they actually bolster immunity to the point where you are better protected against infection and disease. Demonstrating whether an herb — or any substance, for that matter — can enhance immunity is, as yet, a highly complicated matter.

Scientists don't know, for example, whether an herb that seems to raise the levels of antibodies in the blood is actually doing anything beneficial for overall immunity.

Modern medicine has come to appreciate the closely linked relationship of mind and body. A wide variety of maladies, including stomach upset, hives, and even heart disease, are linked to the effects of emotional stress. Despite the challenges, scientists are actively studying the relationship between stress and immune function.

For one thing, stress is difficult to define. What may appear to be a stressful situation for one person is not for another.

When people are exposed to situations they regard as stressful, it is difficult for them to measure how much stress they feel, and difficult for the scientist to know if a person's subjective impression of the amount of stress is accurate. The scientist can only measure things that may reflect stress, such as the number of times the heart beats each minute, but such measures also may reflect other factors.

Most scientists studying the relationship of stress and immune function, however, do not study a sudden, short-lived stressor; rather, they try to study more constant and frequent stressors known as chronic stress, such as that caused by relationships with family, friends, and co-workers, or sustained challenges to perform well at one's work.

Some scientists are investigating whether ongoing stress takes a toll on the immune system. But it is hard to perform what scientists call "controlled experiments" in human beings.

In a controlled experiment, the scientist can change one and only one factor, such as the amount of a particular chemical, and then measure the effect of that change on some other measurable phenomenon, such as the amount of antibodies produced by a particular type of immune system cell when it is exposed to the chemical.

In a living animal, and especially in a human being, that kind of control is just not possible, since there are so many other things happening to the animal or person at the time that measurements are being taken. Despite these inevitable difficulties in measuring the relationship of stress to immunity, scientists are making progress.

Almost every mother has said it: "Wear a jacket or you'll catch a cold! Probably not, exposure to moderate cold temperatures doesn't increase your susceptibility to infection. There are two reasons why winter is "cold and flu season. Also the influenza virus stays airborne longer when air is cold and less humid.

But researchers remain interested in this question in different populations. Some experiments with mice suggest that cold exposure might reduce the ability to cope with infection. But what about humans?

Scientists have performed experiments in which volunteers were briefly dunked in cold water or spent short periods of time naked in subfreezing temperatures.

They've studied people who lived in Antarctica and those on expeditions in the Canadian Rockies. The results have been mixed. For example, researchers documented an increase in upper respiratory infections in competitive cross-country skiers who exercise vigorously in the cold, but whether these infections are due to the cold or other factors — such as the intense exercise or the dryness of the air — is not known.

A group of Canadian researchers that has reviewed hundreds of medical studies on the subject and conducted some of its own research concludes that there's no need to worry about moderate cold exposure — it has no detrimental effect on the human immune system. Should you bundle up when it's cold outside?

The answer is "yes" if you're uncomfortable, or if you're going to be outdoors for an extended period where such problems as frostbite and hypothermia are a risk. But don't worry about immunity. Regular exercise is one of the pillars of healthy living. It improves cardiovascular health, lowers blood pressure, helps control body weight, and protects against a variety of diseases.

But does it help to boost your immune system naturally and keep it healthy? Just like a healthy diet, exercise can contribute to general good health and therefore to a healthy immune system.

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