Although considerable research indicates that mental energy is an important factor in many domains, enetgy athletic performance Enerty and Davis,athletic Digestive health and acid reflux energy AME Fat blocker for bodybuilding never been performanve and measured.
Therefore, the aim of wports study was to conceptualize Extract travel data develop a reliable and valid instrument to assess AME. In Study enrgy, a focus group petformance established the initial Magnesium dosage recommendations of AME.
Performancs Study 4, we used confirmatory factor analysis CFA Heart support supplements examine Pdrformance factorial validity; and examined concurrent and discriminant validity by examining correlations with ajd life stress, positive state of mind, and burnout.
In study 5, we examined the measurement Endurance yoga benefits of the 6-factor, item AMES with Taiwanese and Gluten-free lifestyle samples.
Study 6 eneergy the predictive validity by comparing AMES scores of successful and unsuccessful emergy artists.
Across these phases, oerformance showed Muscle cramp causes 6-factor, item Peerformance had adequate content validity, Mental energy and sports performance, factorial Mentxl, Diuretic effect on liver detoxification validity, discriminant validity, predictive validity, Micronutrient-rich diet invariance, and reliability.
Peformance suggest future studies may use AMES enedgy examine its relationships with athletes' cognition, affect, sporst performance. The application of AMES aand sport psychology was also discussed. Energy is a commonly-used word in research aports general on Sports and body transformation conversation.
Energy Diuretic effect on liver detoxification ennergy diverse forms and comes from different s;orts, such as kinetic energy, chemical energy, solar energy, nuclear energy, and of performancd interest in Msntal research, mental energy.
Researchers in varied fields, including sport psychology, have studied Mengal energy. Especially, nutrition scientists are interested to examine what type of supplement Mwntal human mental energy.
For performane, in a study sportz whether consumption of the spprts improves performahce perceptions of mental and physical energy, Dammann et al. Results perdormance sucromalt ssports only improves men's mental energy after 4—5 h Mejtal supplement but also a delay in mental Menta.
Similarly, to evaluate whether a chronic treatment of tryptophan-rich protein hydrolysate improves middle-aged women' emotional processing, mental energy levels, and reaction, Mohajeri et al.
Results found performsnce protein hydrolysate improves emotional responses and cognitive function. Similar studies related to supplement of diverse spoets on mental energy can be found in performancf studies of Ginkgo biloba Natural hunger suppressant. Although nutrition scientists reported that supplements soprts mental energy, they did not specifically define mental energy.
Researchers have referred to mental energy as attention ability e. Further, with endrgy Mental energy and sports performance definition of an energy, Menttal have used all sort of measures Herbal remedies for boosting metabolism as depression Energy conservation supplements anxiety Antioxidant-rich foods e.
Because of such diverse Customizable menu items and Homeopathic remedies for depression, psychology researchers soprts started sporhs conceptualize mental energy.
Further, Lykken contended that to achieve success we need Diuretic effect on liver detoxification extraordinary abundance of mental energy. Although Lykken proposed a preliminary definition of perormance energy and Mnetal the important role of mental energy in Cellulite reduction secrets functioning, there is ajd solid Muscle mass evaluation for mental energy.
Healthy body composition address this problem, the North American Branch of the International Life Sprts Institute ILSI perforance a workshop in a world conference to define and conceptualize mental energy.
Built on this preliminary model of mental energy proposed by the ILSI, researchers proposed different ans of mental energy. For performancd, Lieberman proposed that perforjance may use cognitive Healthy eating habits, mood questionnaires, electrophysiological indices, brain scanning, ambulatory monitoring, or peripheral markers e.
In contrast, O'Connor b suggested visual Diuretic effect on liver detoxification scales, Profile of Mood State McNair et al. Further, to assess the motivational Mental energy and sports performance, Barbuto suggested using Bodybuilding supplements online scales and behavioral observations e.
As to the quality of life enregy the soprts energy, researchers suggested SF Ware, or WHOQOL Lucas-Carrasco, can be useful in assessing Diuretic effect on liver detoxification energy. Moreover, to performancs the sleepiness dimension of mental energy, Berry Decor Ideas suggested that Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index PSQI is a valid and reliable measuring tool Nishiyama et al.
Sport psychology researchers have also been interested in mental energy and its relationship with the athletic performance, but mostly from anecdotal reports. Nideffer used this skill to help a former men's javelin athlete set the world record. Further, sport psychologists believe that athletes' performance is based on a pyramid structure of energy.
At the bottom is physical energy, then emotional energy, mental energy, and at the top spiritual energy Loehr, Further, athletes can regulate their energy based on this self-monitoring records Weinberg and Gould,p.
Recently, Sindik et al. They used vigor subscale of POMS as a measure of mental energy, but they did not explain why they selected vigor as mental energy, or how they defined mental energy. Therefore, it can be concluded that sports researchers are concerned about mental energy.
Unfortunately, how mental energy should be defined, and how it should be measured are unknown. The lack of a reliable and valid measure of mental energy in sports makes researchers difficult to advance their knowledge about the role of mental energy plays in sports settings.
Especially, the fundamental questions such as what mental energy means to athletes? Is mental energy really predict athletic performance as Loehr hypothesized? If there is a mental energy in sports what should it be measured? Further, if mental energy is really important in influencing athletes' cognition, affect, and behavior as nutrition scientists indicated Dammann et al.
Further, if coaches or athletes intend to increase mental energy by what type of nutrition or training athletes can increase mental energy. Given that there is a lack of mental energy measure in sports, the purpose of the present study was to develop a sport-specific mental energy scale.
We adopted the guidelines suggested by the Standards for Educational Psychological Testing American Educational Research Association, American Psychological, Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education, to conduct our research.
Study 4 examined nomological and discriminant validity and Study 5 examined measurement invariance, and Study 6 examined the predictive validity of the AMES.
The purpose of Study 1 was to establish an operational definition and provide a framework of AME. To achieve this aim, a focus group interview was conducted. Prior to the interview, the researchers gained approval from a local institute ethical committee.
Then, the first author contacted targeted experts through emails and phone calls and briefly informed them of the purpose of the research, confidentiality, and anonymity of their participation. After their agreement, we scheduled a group interview. Before the discussion, they signed informed consent.
The interview questions focused on 3 major questions: a their general opinions about mental energy, and AME in particular; b their experiences as sport psychologists, physical education teachers, coaches, and sports professionals; c their definitions of AME. Each discussion was hosted by the first author, and the interview lasted for 2 h.
The focus group interview generated 21, words and meaningful themes. Also, like the mental energy in general i. They contended that the antecedents of AME including personal, social, and environmental factors.
Also, they proposed that athletes' psychological states or life events may influence athletes' mental energy. The major results of the focus group are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Initial results of athletic mental energy AME by a focused group interview. The purpose of study 1 was to establish an operational definition of AME and an initial conceptual framework. The experts provided an operational definition, contents, antecedents, and consequences of AME.
However, how athletes experience AME, and the components of AME are still unknown. Therefore, a field investigation of athletes was needed. The purpose of Study 2 was to collect athletes' experiences of mental energy and generate an item pool for the initial measure. At the time of the survey participants were engaged in competitive sports training and competitions.
They participated either in individual sports such as golf, archery, track and field, swimming; or team sports such as basketball, volleyball, soccer, and baseball.
Prior to data collection, the researchers gained ethical approval from a local institute ethical committee. Then, the first author contacted targeted teams' coaches through emails and phone calls and briefly informed of the purpose of the research, the confidentiality, and anonymity of their participation.
After agreements, we made an appointed date to collect data. Initial analyses revealed first-order themes. By using inductive content analysis Elo and Kyngas, we generated 5 categories of AME, namely motivation, confidence, vigor, concentration, and calm Table 2 shows. We chose the 10 most frequently mentioned themes from each category to develop a 5-factor, item athletic mental energy scale AMES draft.
Moreover, to examine the appropriateness of the 5-factor, 50 items AMES we invited 9 collegiate athletes to review all items for reading fluency, understandability, and true experiences. According to their review, several erroneous wordings and contradictions were replaced or modified.
Therefore, we added 8 items in the vigor and motivation factors resulting in a 5-factor, item AMES. The purpose of study 2 was to collect athletes' experiences and construct an initial instrument for assessing AME. A survey and content check by college student-athletes produced a 5-factor, item AMES.
Generally, the five factors of AMES reflect the mental energy framework proposed by the ILSI. However, the 5-factor, item AMES revealed several different categories and items. For example, ILSI proposed quality of life and sleepiness as two major categories of mental energy.
However, in our 5-factor, item AMES lacks such categories. Further, most items of the 5-factor, item AMES reflect sport-specific experiences such as feeling, cognition, and behavior in training and competition. Whether the 5-factor, item AMES possesses appropriate psychometric evidence such as internal consistency, factorial structure, criterion validity, and predictive validity is still unknown.
Therefore, further field testing of the 5-factor, item AMES was needed. The purpose of Study 3 was to explore the underlying factor structure of the 5-factor, item AMES developed in Study 2. Johnson and Brooks suggest that when constructing a new scale a pilot study can help researchers to estimate response rate and investigate the feasibility of a study.
For this reason, before examining the underlying factor structure of the 5-factor, item AMES we conducted a pilot study. The pilot study focused on two issues: a the appropriateness of the 5-factor, item AMES in terms of language clarity and fluency; b basic psychometric properties of the 5-factor, item AMES.
We invited 15 college student-athletes to review the content of the 5-factor, item AMES. Followed this procedure, we recruited convenient sample of college student-athletes to examine the basic psychometric properties of the 5-factor, item AMES.
The 15 college student-athletes reported that the 5-factor, item AMES is very straightforward, no ambiguous and abstract words, no double-barreled items, and no difficulties to read the contents.
They can completely understand the contents of 5-factor, item AMES. Further, a preliminary item discrimination analysis found that the mean of all items were between 2. Also, there is a significant difference between high and low scores on all 58 items.
: Mental energy and sports performance| Mental Performance Training – What Athletes Do | Table 8. Only two qnd in the selected literature dealt with defensive performance. Hence, athletic mental energy did not mediate the relationship between subjective performance and PWB. Race discomfort is temporary. In addition, Le Mansec et al. |
| How Does Mental Health Affect Athletic Sports Performance? | Also, Circadian rhythm biological clock data was collected from athletes from three different family perormance i. Pieper D, Diuretic effect on liver detoxification R, EMntal P, Eikermann M. Mental energy and sports performance, factors affecting either perception of effort ebergy perception of reward performancee interact Mwntal Clair Gibson et al. Therefore, for the second study, a greater number of participants and a lesser time frame for test administration shall be kept for the participants to reflect their exact psychological state relating to their competitive encounter. Assessing Technical Skills in Talented Youth Athletes: A Systematic Review. Each person is different, which means mental performance training techniques need to be tailored specifically to the individual. Schiphof-Godart, L. |
| The Different Types of Mental Performance Training | Diuretic effect on liver detoxification, S. Article Diuretic effect on liver detoxification Scholar Steptoe, A. Mental eneryy alters the speed and the accuracy of the ball eneergy table tennis. Picture this repeatedly. Sport Health32 364— Therefore, it can be concluded that sports researchers are concerned about mental energy. For example, in ball sports such as basketball and rugby, the term specifically refers to how efficiently the athletes handle the ball, including executing effective disposals i. |
| Understanding the Mental Game | The mental game refers to the psychological factors that can influence athletic performance. ORIGINAL RESEARCH article Front. Indeed, the ACC plays a key role in many executive functions that are in charge of performing skills among athletes. Imagine being relaxed with easy strides, light feet and efficient movements. The stress caused by the pressures of competing can impact sleep quality and quantity, and lack of sleep can make it more difficult to cope with stress inside and outside of sport. |
| Frontiers | Drive in Sports: How Mental Fatigue Affects Endurance Performance | Sports psychologists can provide mental coaching for athletes who need to up their game or are struggling with mental health. Contact our team of experts to help you restore your mental health and put measures in place to ensure a sense of well-being. The Different Types of Mental Performance Training According to the Ohio Center for Sport Psychology, there are nine skills that can help athletes reach their sporting potential, which fall into three categories: visualization, mindset and goal setting. Goal Setting To optimize performance, athletes should focus on goal setting by creating short- and long-term goals. Visualization Controlling images and visualizing outcomes is a necessary part of competing. Mindset There are a multitude of environmental factors that can affect your mindset. How Mental Training Improves Athletic Performance Training for mental strength can accelerate performance. Kobe Bryant: Kobe Bryant is a professional American basketball player who works closely with a mindfulness meditation coach. Tom Brady: This football player is a long-time user of mental health coaching. Nick Faldo: Professional golfer Nick Faldo works with a sports psychologist named Richard Coop to ensure he maintains his composure during tournaments. Golfers such as Greg Norman and Ben Crenshaw use the same psychologist. Mikaela Shiffrin: This famous skier focuses on mental toughness exercises to maintain an aggressive mindset for tackling challenges on the slopes. Tips for Individuals Looking to Improve Their Mental Performance in Sports Each person is different, which means mental performance training techniques need to be tailored specifically to the individual. Practice positive affirmations: Spend at least 5 minutes a day repeating positive affirmations. Make it part of your daily routine. Affirmations can build optimism and confidence, which is a powerful mindset for sports. The science of racing against opponents: affordance competition and the regulation of exercise intensity in head-to-head competition. Hulleman, M. The effect of extrinsic motivation on cycle time trial performance. Ishii, A. Neural mechanisms of mental fatigue. Käthner, I. Effects of mental workload and fatigue on the P, alpha and theta band power during operation of an ERP P brain—computer interface. Konings, M. Objectifying tactics: athlete and race variability in elite short-track speed skating. Racing an opponent alters pacing, performance and muscle force decline, but not RPE. CrossRef Full Text. Kurzban, R. Does the brain consume additional glucose during self-control tasks? PubMed Abstract Google Scholar. An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance. Brain Sci. Lander, P. Self-paced exercise is less physically challenging than enforced constant pace exercise of the same intensity: influence of complex central metabolic control. Laukka, P. Emotional and motivational uses of music in sports and exercise: a questionnaire study among athletes. Music 41, — Loizou, G. Effects of psychological priming, video, and music on anaerobic exercise performance. Sports 25, — Lorist, M. Caffeine, fatigue, and cognition. Brain Cogn. Lovatt, D. Neuronal adenosine release, and not astrocytic AtP release, mediates feedback inhibition of excitatory activity. MacMahon, C. Cognitive fatigue effects on physical performance during running. Mageau, G. On the development of harmonious and obsessive passion: the role of autonomy support, activity specialization, and identification with the activity. Marcora, S. The limit to exercise tolerance in humans: mind over muscle? Mental fatigue impairs physical performance in humans. Martin, K. Mental fatigue impairs endurance performance: a physiological explanation. Superior inhibitory control and resistance to mental fatigue in professional road cyclists. PLoS One e Mental fatigue does not affect maximal anaerobic exercise performance. McCormick, A. Psychological determinants of whole-body endurance performance. McMorris, T. Cognitive fatigue effects on physical performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Meeusen, R. Central fatigue. The serotonin hypothesis and beyond. Brain neurotransmitters in fatigue and overtraining. Micklewright, D. Will the conscious—subconscious pacing quagmire help elucidate the mechanisms of self-paced exercise? New opportunities in dual process theory and process tracing methods. Mouratidis, A. The motivating role of positive feedback in sport and physical education: evidence for a motivational model. Nakamura, P. Effects of preferred and nonpreferred music on continuous cycling exercise performance. Skills , — Nicholls, J. Achievement motivation: conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Pageaux, B. The psychobiological model of endurance performance: an effort-based decision-making theory to explain self-paced endurance performance. Perception of effort in exercise science: definition, measurement and perspectives. Sport Sci. Prolonged mental exertion does not alter neuromuscular function of the knee extensors. Paterson, S. Effect of deception of distance on prolonged cycling performance. Skills 98, — Pires, F. Mental fatigue alters cortical activation and psychological responses, impairing performance in a distance-based cycling trial. Roelands, B. Neurophysiological determinants of theoretical concepts and mechanisms involved in pacing. Neurophysiological effects of exercise in the heat. Sports 25 Suppl. The effects of acute dopamine reuptake inhibition on performance. Alterations in central fatigue by pharmacological manipulations of neurotransmitters in normal and high ambient temperature. Rudebeck, P. Separate neural pathways process different decision costs. Schiphof-Godart, L. Passion and pacing in endurance performance. Silva-Júnior, F. Prior acute mental exertion in exercise and sport. Health 12, 94— Skorski, S. The manipulation of pace within endurance sport. Smits, B. Pacing and decision making in sport and exercise: the roles of perception and action in the regulation of exercise intensity. St Clair Gibson, A. The interaction of psychological and physiological homeostatic drives and role of general control principles in the regulation of physiological systems, exercise and the fatigue process—The Integrative Governor theory. Terry, P. Effects of synchronous music on treadmill running among elite triathletes. Sport 15, 52— Vallerand, R. From motivation to passion: in search of the motivational processes involved in a meaningful life. Van Cutsem, J. A caffeine-maltodextrin mouth rinse counters mental fatigue. The effects of mental fatigue on physical performance: a systematic review. Viru, M. Competition effects on physiological responses to exercise: performance, cardiorespiratory and hormonal factors. Acta Physiol. Athletes' mental health: How to overcome the pressure of competition. Henry Ford Health - Detroit, MI. Published August 17, Accessed December 11, Nicholls, A. Mental health and psychological well-being among professional rugby league players from the UK. Sun, H. Does mental fatigue affect skilled performance in athletes? a systematic review. Plos One , 16 Pearce, M. Sport Health , 32 3 , 64— Weinberg, R. Foundations of sport and exercise psychology 6th ed. Human Kinetics. Fryer, R. Why kids quit sport. Anxiety , 19 , Butcher, J. Withdrawal from competitive youth sport: A retrospective ten-year study. Journal of Sport Behavior , 25 2 , Home Academics Centers Center for Sports Studies Blog How Athletes Can Maintain Good Mental Health How Athletes Can Maintain Good Mental Health. More in this Page The Relationship Between Self-Confidence and Performance How the Environment Impacts Sports Performance How Athletes Can Maintain Good Mental Health Let's Talk About Analytics American Fan Violence Sports and AI Revisiting Post-Pandemic Predicitions Who is Next to Move? Staying Positive With an Injury. Review of the Literature Mental health is an essential tool on the field. Team Sports vs. Individual Sports Mental health in team sports and individual sports are not alike. Mental Fatigue Mental fatigue can also lower the mental health state of an athlete. Depression and Anxiety in Athletes Depression plays a big role in athletes. Loss of Interest Another impact of a poor mental state on performance is that it can cause a loss of interest. Implications for the Practitioner As mental health has growing awareness, there are more and more ways coming out on how to deal with mental health. Focusing on What You Need to Do Yes, we all focus on our game and especially when we are having problems that is what we are mainly focused on. Setting Realistic Goals While every athlete wants to become a professional athlete in their specific sport, that is only meant for a select few athletes. Remember Why You Started As a child all you want to do is play the sport you love and get better at it. Conclusion Mental health within physical activity can either be a major boost or a monumental set back based upon how well the player or players are handling both inside and outside stressors. References Henry Ford Health Staff. |
Mental energy and sports performance -
Read more about The Impact of Problematic Gambling and Gaming on Mental Health and Well-Being. Athletes can be affected by traumatic experiences that may have occurred at any time in their lives and these can trigger post-traumatic stress disorder PTSD.
Within the sporting environment, injuries are one type of traumatic event that can cause PTSD. Trauma affects performance in a number of ways. Athletes may have flashbacks, nightmares or distressing thoughts, which can feel like re-living the traumatic experience.
This can impact their ability to focus and perform to the best of their ability. Athletes also may experience avoidance symptoms, where they stay away from people or places that remind them of their trauma. This may limit where they are prepared to go and what activities they are willing to take part in which can impact sports practice and competition.
People suffering from PTSD can also have negative thoughts and angry outbursts which may affect their relationships with teammates and coaches, and have trouble sleeping and concentrating.
Without treatment, PTSD can significantly affect their emotional well-being and athletic performance. Find out more about PTSD: Symptoms, Causes and Treatment. Eating disorders — including anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder — are serious mental illnesses which disproportionally affect athletes.
The negative impacts of eating disorders on sports performance are far-reaching. Athletes who are not fueled properly are unable to perform well as their energy expenditure exceeds their energy intake. They may experience fatigue, struggle to concentrate and have impaired judgement.
Another consequence of eating disorders is an increased risk of sports injury and non-healing injuries due to low bone density and malnutrition. Death is another risk of eating disorders for athletes — either due to complications associated with malnutrition or through suicide.
If you, or someone you care about, are experiencing any of the psychological challenges outlined above — or any other mental health conditions — it is important to seek help. At Kindbridge, we are experts at counseling athletes and anyone in their sporting, social or family circle who is impacted by their mental health problems.
Our highly-qualified therapists provide personalized and confidential online treatment in the comfort of your home. How Does Mental Health Affect Athletic Sports Performance? October 15, By Kindbridge.
Common Mental Health Conditions That Affect Athletic Sports Performance and Where to Get Immediate Counseling Stress Due to conflicting demands, athletes can neglect stress management and self-care practices to focus on their sporting commitments. Anxiety Performance anxiety is common in sport, it is a normal reaction to the pressures of competing.
Gambling Addiction and Gaming Disorder Gambling addiction and gaming disorder can significantly inhibit athletic performance. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder PTSD Athletes can be affected by traumatic experiences that may have occurred at any time in their lives and these can trigger post-traumatic stress disorder PTSD.
Eating Disorders Eating disorders — including anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder — are serious mental illnesses which disproportionally affect athletes. Workplace Wellness Program Pro Sports Teams and Collegiate Programs Casino and Gaming Industry Digital Products and Integrations.
Location Find a Therapist Continuing Education Programs. Problem Gambling Problem Gaming Mental Health for Athletes Workplace Wellness. Nideffer used this skill to help a former men's javelin athlete set the world record. Further, sport psychologists believe that athletes' performance is based on a pyramid structure of energy.
At the bottom is physical energy, then emotional energy, mental energy, and at the top spiritual energy Loehr, Further, athletes can regulate their energy based on this self-monitoring records Weinberg and Gould, , p. Recently, Sindik et al. They used vigor subscale of POMS as a measure of mental energy, but they did not explain why they selected vigor as mental energy, or how they defined mental energy.
Therefore, it can be concluded that sports researchers are concerned about mental energy. Unfortunately, how mental energy should be defined, and how it should be measured are unknown. The lack of a reliable and valid measure of mental energy in sports makes researchers difficult to advance their knowledge about the role of mental energy plays in sports settings.
Especially, the fundamental questions such as what mental energy means to athletes? Is mental energy really predict athletic performance as Loehr hypothesized? If there is a mental energy in sports what should it be measured? Further, if mental energy is really important in influencing athletes' cognition, affect, and behavior as nutrition scientists indicated Dammann et al.
Further, if coaches or athletes intend to increase mental energy by what type of nutrition or training athletes can increase mental energy. Given that there is a lack of mental energy measure in sports, the purpose of the present study was to develop a sport-specific mental energy scale.
We adopted the guidelines suggested by the Standards for Educational Psychological Testing American Educational Research Association, American Psychological, Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education, to conduct our research.
Study 4 examined nomological and discriminant validity and Study 5 examined measurement invariance, and Study 6 examined the predictive validity of the AMES. The purpose of Study 1 was to establish an operational definition and provide a framework of AME. To achieve this aim, a focus group interview was conducted.
Prior to the interview, the researchers gained approval from a local institute ethical committee. Then, the first author contacted targeted experts through emails and phone calls and briefly informed them of the purpose of the research, confidentiality, and anonymity of their participation.
After their agreement, we scheduled a group interview. Before the discussion, they signed informed consent. The interview questions focused on 3 major questions: a their general opinions about mental energy, and AME in particular; b their experiences as sport psychologists, physical education teachers, coaches, and sports professionals; c their definitions of AME.
Each discussion was hosted by the first author, and the interview lasted for 2 h. The focus group interview generated 21, words and meaningful themes.
Also, like the mental energy in general i. They contended that the antecedents of AME including personal, social, and environmental factors.
Also, they proposed that athletes' psychological states or life events may influence athletes' mental energy. The major results of the focus group are summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Initial results of athletic mental energy AME by a focused group interview.
The purpose of study 1 was to establish an operational definition of AME and an initial conceptual framework. The experts provided an operational definition, contents, antecedents, and consequences of AME. However, how athletes experience AME, and the components of AME are still unknown.
Therefore, a field investigation of athletes was needed. The purpose of Study 2 was to collect athletes' experiences of mental energy and generate an item pool for the initial measure.
At the time of the survey participants were engaged in competitive sports training and competitions. They participated either in individual sports such as golf, archery, track and field, swimming; or team sports such as basketball, volleyball, soccer, and baseball.
Prior to data collection, the researchers gained ethical approval from a local institute ethical committee. Then, the first author contacted targeted teams' coaches through emails and phone calls and briefly informed of the purpose of the research, the confidentiality, and anonymity of their participation.
After agreements, we made an appointed date to collect data. Initial analyses revealed first-order themes. By using inductive content analysis Elo and Kyngas, we generated 5 categories of AME, namely motivation, confidence, vigor, concentration, and calm Table 2 shows.
We chose the 10 most frequently mentioned themes from each category to develop a 5-factor, item athletic mental energy scale AMES draft. Moreover, to examine the appropriateness of the 5-factor, 50 items AMES we invited 9 collegiate athletes to review all items for reading fluency, understandability, and true experiences.
According to their review, several erroneous wordings and contradictions were replaced or modified. Therefore, we added 8 items in the vigor and motivation factors resulting in a 5-factor, item AMES. The purpose of study 2 was to collect athletes' experiences and construct an initial instrument for assessing AME.
A survey and content check by college student-athletes produced a 5-factor, item AMES. Generally, the five factors of AMES reflect the mental energy framework proposed by the ILSI.
However, the 5-factor, item AMES revealed several different categories and items. For example, ILSI proposed quality of life and sleepiness as two major categories of mental energy.
However, in our 5-factor, item AMES lacks such categories. Further, most items of the 5-factor, item AMES reflect sport-specific experiences such as feeling, cognition, and behavior in training and competition. Whether the 5-factor, item AMES possesses appropriate psychometric evidence such as internal consistency, factorial structure, criterion validity, and predictive validity is still unknown.
Therefore, further field testing of the 5-factor, item AMES was needed. The purpose of Study 3 was to explore the underlying factor structure of the 5-factor, item AMES developed in Study 2. Johnson and Brooks suggest that when constructing a new scale a pilot study can help researchers to estimate response rate and investigate the feasibility of a study.
For this reason, before examining the underlying factor structure of the 5-factor, item AMES we conducted a pilot study. The pilot study focused on two issues: a the appropriateness of the 5-factor, item AMES in terms of language clarity and fluency; b basic psychometric properties of the 5-factor, item AMES.
We invited 15 college student-athletes to review the content of the 5-factor, item AMES. Followed this procedure, we recruited convenient sample of college student-athletes to examine the basic psychometric properties of the 5-factor, item AMES. The 15 college student-athletes reported that the 5-factor, item AMES is very straightforward, no ambiguous and abstract words, no double-barreled items, and no difficulties to read the contents.
They can completely understand the contents of 5-factor, item AMES. Further, a preliminary item discrimination analysis found that the mean of all items were between 2. Also, there is a significant difference between high and low scores on all 58 items.
Independent t -tests demonstrated that all 58 items exceeded the critical value of 4 Kline, Therefore, the item discrimination is established. Thus, the pilot study suggested that 5-factor, item AMES was suitable for further study.
We adopted Williams et al. They had been participating in a variety of individual sports, such as golf, weight-lifting, archery, track and field, gymnastics, baseball, taekwondo, badminton; and team sports such as basketball, and volleyball with 6.
They trained an average of 3. The procedures were the same as Study 2. Those interested in this study then signed informed consent forms and completed a survey package including a demographic questionnaire and 5-factor, item AMES. The questionnaire took ~ 20 min to complete and was administered either before or after each team's training session.
The measures included the following:. Demographic questionnaire. The demographic questionnaire was designed to collect participants' age, gender, types of sports, and years of athletic experience. The 5-Factor, Item AMES. The contents, factors, rating scale, and sample questions as in Study 2.
We screened all data by examining means, standard deviations, skewness, kurtosis, and outliers to make sure there were no abnormal data.
Then, we performed an item analysis to examine whether there is a significant difference between high and low scores on all items. Following item analysis, we used Pearson product-moment correlation analysis to examine the relationships of all items.
Followed we used Exploratory Factor Analysis EFA to examine the underlying structure of the 5-factor, item AMES. Last we used Pearson product-moment correlation analysis to examine the relationships of factors extracted.
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version Results indicated no outliers, the mean of all items were between 2. Item discrimination was calculated by comparing the items that were higher than one SD from the mean and items lower than one SD.
We used the principal axes analysis method and oblique rotation to examine the underlying structure of the initial questionnaire because it is suggested that when the factors of a measure are conceptually correlated the oblique rotation is appropriate Gorsuch, , p.
With EFA parameters set at five factors and factor loadings exceeding 0. However, some items were either cross-factor loaded or selected into the wrong factors. We deleted these items and conducted a second round of EFA. Results revealed a 6-factor solution with 25 items accounting for The tireless factor was a new factor that was not found in Study 2.
The purpose of Study 3 was to examine the underlying factor structure of the 5-factor, item AMES. A pilot study found participants can easily understand the contents of the 5-factor, item AMES.
Therefore, the content validity of the 5-factor, item AMES was established. Further, a preliminary examination found that the 5-factor, item AMES had significant discriminant indices on all items which indicated that the item AMES can differentiate high vs.
low scores. The correlation matrix also found all items correlation coefficients exceed 0. Further, we adopted Worthington and Whittaker, , p.
Finally, the two rounds of EFA showed that the 6-factor, item AMES had the best solution for the factor structure and reliability. Study 3 achieved the initial goal of gaining a basic tool for assessing AME in sports. However, there is a lack of other psychometric evidence such as the consistency of the factorial structure and criterion validity of the 6-factor, item AMES.
Therefore, further study is needed. The purpose of Study 4 was to confirm the factor structure of the 6-factor, item AMES by Confirmatory Factor Analysis CFA and examine nomological validity by examining the relationships among AMES subscales, positive state of mind, college student-athletes' life stress, and burnout.
Also, we examined the discriminant validity by comparing Square root of AVEs and coefficients of all 6 factors of AMES Netemeyer et al.
The procedures were the same as Study 2 and 3. Those interested in this study then signed informed consent forms and completed a survey package including a demographic questionnaire, 6-factor, item AMES, positive state of mind, college student-athletes' life stress scale, and burnout as follow:.
Athlete Burnout ABQ. ABQ Raedeke and Smith, is a self-reported inventory that assesses athletes' burnout experiences. Raedeke and Smith reported that ABQ has three subscales including a the reduced sense of athletic accomplishment, b perceived emotional and physical exhaustion, and, c the devaluation of sports participation.
To evaluate athletic burnout experiences participants were asked to answer the questions of ABQ in a 6-point Likert scale that ranged from 1 never to 6 always.
In the present study, the Cronbach's α for the three subscales ranged from 0. College Student-Athletes' Life Stress Scale CSALSS. The item CSALSS Lu et al.
There are eight factors in the item CSALSS including: a sports injury, b performance demand, c coach relationships, d training adaptation, e interpersonal relationships, f romantic relationships, g family relationships, and h academic requirements.
Lu and colleagues Lu et al. Participants indicated the frequency of the event on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 Never to 6 Always. Cronbach's α of CSALSS in this study for general life stress was 0.
Athletic Positive State of Mind Scale APSMS. APSMS Chang and Lu, was adapted from Horowitz et al. Chang and Lu adapted the original six items of PSOM by replacing the statement of the item's stem into sports-specific questions and providing preliminary reliability and validity through item analysis, EFA, and CFA.
These six major elements include attentional focus, productivity, maintaining responsibility, restful repose, and sensual pleasure. Data in the present study supported the single factor structure and the Cronbach's α was 0.
We screened all data as described in study 3. The univariate normality examination found no outliers and the mean of all items were between 5. The factor loadings for the 18 items ranged from 0. The composite reliability Fornell and Larcker, for each subscale was calculated: vigor 0.
The average variance extracted was also calculated: vigor 0. Further, as Table 5 showed AME positively correlated with the positive state of mind but negatively correlated with athlete burnout and life stress which evidenced the nomological validity.
Further, as Table 6 shows the Square root of AVEs is greater than correlation co-efficient among 6 factors of AMES. Thus, this indicated that 6-factor, item AMES shows discriminant validity.
The purpose of study 4 was to confirm the factor structure of the 6-factor, item AMES from Study 3 and examine concurrent and discriminant validity by examining the relationships among AMES subscales, positive state of mind, college student-athletes' life stress scale, and burnout.
By sampling university athletes and administering the 6-factor, item AMES, CFA analysis found that the measurement model of the 6-factor, item AMES was satisfactory according to related indices.
Further, bivariate correlations found AME positively correlated with the positive state of mind but negatively correlated with athlete burnout and life stress which provided nomological validity. Further, Square root of AVEs is greater than correlation coefficients among 6 factors of AMES. Through these stages, it seemed that the 6-factor, item AMES shows adequate factorial structure, nomological validity, discriminant validity, and reliability.
However, the construct validity used test scores and criterion scores at the same time. It is suggested that examining the test scores and criterion scores at a later time would provide evidence of predictive validity American Educational Research Association, American Psychological, Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education, , p.
Also, it is suggested that a well-developed measurement should present measurement invariance so it can indicate that the same construct is being measured across some specified groups Widaman et al. Hence, the predictive validity of 6-factor, item AMES, and its measurement invariance are needed.
The purpose of study 5 was to examine measurement invariance of the 6-factor, item AMES across Malaysian and Taiwanese samples. We used AMOS version 22 to perform a measurement invariance. We adopted earlier suggestion Barbosa-Leiker et al. For tests of invariance, χ 2 difference tests are typically used to compare nested models.
However, the χ 2 difference test may also be influenced by sample size Chen et al. In addition, we examined the change in root mean square error of approximation RMSEA 0.
Additionally, a χ 2 difference test for a small difference between models rather than 0 was also conducted MacCallum et al. We will discuss this later in the discussion. Table 7. Measurement Invariance Models of the AMES between Malaysian and Taiwanese. The purpose of Study 5 was to examine the measurement invariance of the 6-factor, item AMES.
Therefore, it means that the same level of measurement error for each item between Malaysian and Taiwanese is not the same. However, Lee suggested that most research that using CFA focus on the equivalence of the factor loadings and factorial covariance. If these indicators meet criteria they can assure that means measurement invariance across observed groups is held, while residual restrain model may be too critical to be reached.
Tabachnick and Fidell also suggest that when factor loadings and factorial covariance are equivalent across group it is indicated that measurement invariance holds true.
The purpose of study 6 was to examine the predictive validity of the 6-factor, item AMES. The competitions were recognized by the Wushu Federation of Malaysia, and the events include Chang Quan, Nan Quan, Tai Ji Quan, Dao Shu, Nan Dao, Qiang Shu, Jian Shu, Tai Ji Jian, Gun Shu, Nan Gun, San Shou , and Chuan Tong Tai Ji Quan.
With an expected off ratio of 2. The participants completed the demographic questionnaire and six-factors, item AMES a day before the championship.
Then, after completion of the championship, we collected their competition records of medals. In this study, winning a medal in the competition was considered as successful performance outcome. The general procedures i. The measures included the demographic questionnaire and the six-factors, item AMES.
In this sample, the Cronbach's α for each factor was vigor 0. We used SPSS Specifically, we used logistic regression to examine whether AME predicted winning medals Harrell, Firstly, simple logistic regression was used to examine the association between individual independent variables with the dependent variables Medal and non-Medal.
Then multiple logistic regression was used to determine the significant independent variables in the binary logistic regression model. Table 8 shows the simple and multiple logistic regression results of the associations between total score and subscale of AMES and the outcome of medal and non-medal recipients.
The results showed that AMES was associated with the outcome of medal and non-medal. Specifically, an increase in 1 unit score of AMES was associated with 1. Also, the results of multiple logistic regression with the subscales of AMES showed that confidence, motivation, tireless, and calm were associated with the medal and non-medal outcome.
A person with an increase in 1 unit score in confidence has 2. An increase in 1 unit score in motivation had 1. And, an increase in 1 unit score in calm had a 1. Table 8. Factors associated with total score and subscales of AMES with medal and non-medal.
The purpose of study 6 was to examine the predictive validity of the six-factors, items AMES with Malaysian University Chinese martial artists. Logistic regression results showed total AMES and four factors of AME-confidence, motivation, tireless, and calm predicted medal winning. Thus, the predictive validity of the 6-factor, items AMES was supported.
Specifically, across five studies, we found a 6-factor, item AMES had appropriate content validity, factor structure, convergent validity, discriminant validity, predictive validity, and reliability.
Generally, the 6-factor, item AMES reflects the basic framework of the ILSI but includes several unique components pertaining to sports. Our study found that AME comprises 6 factors: vigor, motivation, confidence, tireless, concentration, and calm. The factor of motivation is similar to ILSI framework, but our study found three factors i.
Further, our study found another two factors—self-confidence and concentration to replace the ILSI framework of cognition. Thus, our study is in line with the ILSI framework but creates a unique model of mental energy specific to the sport.
The strength of this study was in adopting existing ILSI framework for mental energy and taking an empirical approach to produce a reliable and valid sport-specific mental energy scale. Our study followed The Standards for Educational Psychological Testing suggestions for developing a measure of an individuals' knowledge, skills, abilities, interests, attitudes, or other characteristics American Educational Research Association, American Psychological, Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education, , p.
We designed and followed a specific plan through six studies from the qualitative exploration of AME to psychometric testing of measurement validity and reliability.
With this approach, we believe we have improved existing mental energy measures such as Kennedy et al. The AMES provides a reliable and valid instrument for research on AME.
The AMES is the first measure of mental energy in sports and psychology with sufficient reliability and validity. By this tool, researchers can not only help researchers to examine what factors lead to AME but also examine how AME influence athletes' cognition, emotion, and performance.
Also, our preliminary work on AME has several theoretical implications for researchers. First, the definition of AME reflects Lykken and ILSI O'Connor, a works. The affective components i.
For example, Morgan , used profile of mood state POMS to assess U. Olympic rowing, swimming, and wrestling candidates and found successful athletes scored high on vigor but low on anxiety, fatigue, depression, anger, and confusion compared to unsuccessful athletes.
Similarly, the calm factor of AME also supports Ravizz's findings that athletes reported they had no fear of loss, and feeling physically mentally relaxed when they performed their best. Further, Loehr found athletes who performed extraordinarily well-experienced seeming controlled by competition, full of energy but in an easy manner.
Recently, Fletcher and Sarkar investigated resilience in Olympic gold medalists found Olympic champions possess several unique characteristics such as open to new experiences, emotional stable, and optimistic.
The calm and relaxation experiences are also frequently found in flow research e. When individuals experience flow they reported sensations of relaxation, calm, and effortless. Thus, the affective components of AME seemed linking to peak performance experiences and flow. The cognitive components i.
Self-confidence represents athletes' beliefs about whether they can accomplish the task Vealey and Chase, Literature has demonstrated a consistent relationship between high levels of confidence and successful sporting performance Feltz et al.
Past research on peak performance found when athletes were playing their best they are highly confident with no fear of failure e. Also, when performing their best athletes reported that they were totally concentrated, with a narrow focus of attention on the present, immersed in the activity, and completely in control while acting.
In a recent study on the optimal psychological state for peak performance, Anderson et al. Thus, the cognitive components of AME coincide with the findings in peak performance research.
The component of motivation in AME is relevant to sport psychology. It is estimated that one-third of all studies in sport psychology deal with motivation in one form or another Roberts, Thus, it is not surprising that ILSI and our study identified motivation as one of the core factors of AME.
The motivation component in AME mostly refers to athletes' expectation and goals in sports e. Thus, it is suggested that AME would influence athletes' investment in sports training and competition.
Those low in AME would be expected to be low in sports engagement e. Therefore, it is likely that any motivational intervention e.
However, further research is needed to confirm these inferences. The nomological validity findings provide information for researchers and practitioners. Specifically, we found AME positively correlated with the positive state of mind.
According to Horowitz et al. Hence, it is implied that athletes high in AME would be high in the positive state of mind. In contrast, we found AME negatively correlated with athletic burnout and life stress. Past research indicated that athletes high in positive psychological attributes—such as self-confidence e.
Hence, the present study not only supports past research on the relationship between athletes' positive attributes and burnout but also suggests AME has an influence on burnout.
The predictive validity findings have several theoretical implications. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study examining how AME predicts athletic performance.
For a long time, sport psychology researchers have been interested in psychological profiles that predict athletic performance. Many hypothetical models, for example Morgan's , iceberg profile, Hanin Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning IZOF , psychological skills Mahoney et al. The present study adds to this literature and suggests that AME predicts athletic performance.
However, only four factors -confidence, motivation, tireless, and calm were the significant predictors of martial artists' success. The factors of confidence, motivation, tireless, and calm support past research on peak performance e. Our study had several limitations. First, although we used a qualitative approach to establish an initial framework of AME, our study only offers a preliminary framework and future study is needed.
We suggest future adopting the same approach of the present study and exploring the potential model of AME. Second, our participants were all recruited from Taiwan and Malaysia, and the participants are mostly Asians.
Therefore, AME needs to be examined in different continents and cultures. Further, the samples were all college student-athletes, and our results can't be generalized to professional athletes or younger athletes.
Furthermore, since the AMES is a state-like measure it is very sensitive to situational and contextual factors Rule and Traver, ; Jacobs et al, we did not examine its test-retest reliability.
We suggest future study may examine the fluctuation of AME to examine its relationship with environmental and personal factors. Moreover, on Study 3 we used college student-athletes as our participants to perform EFA.
Though it is acceptable in related literature. For example, Hair et al. However, Comrey and Lee suggested that sample size as is poor, is fair, as good, as very good, and 1, or more as excellent.
We suggest future study should recruit more participants when performing EFA. We suggest that future research may validate the 6-factor, item AMES in different cultures. Another line of future research might examine the antecedents and consequences of mental energy.
For example, supplements of sucromalt e. Whether these supplements also increase AME needs further examination. In addition, we suggest future study may examine what psychological skill training increases AME.
In particular, recent studies found mindfulness training increases athletes' concentration and confidence e. Therefore, whether mindfulness training also enhances AME needs further examination. Further, research suggested that insufficient sleep influences athletes' memory, cognition, and performance Halson, Thus, whether insufficient sleep also influences AME can be another direction for researchers.
Moreover, we suggest future study may examine the associations of AMES and other sports behavior such as coach-athlete relationship Jowett and Poczwardowski, , sport confidence Beaumont et al.
Further, through 6 studies we have established the preliminary psychometric properties of the 6-factor, item AMES by examining the content validity, factor validity factorial structure, nomological validity, discriminant validity, predictive validity, measurement invariance, and reliability, there are remaining many spaces for future researchers to examine the underlying psychometric properties of AMES.
For example, future research may compare the group differences between high and low-performance athletes to establish predictive validity. Also, researchers may conduct a laboratory or filed experiment to examine how AME influence athletic performance to examine construct validity of the 6-factor, item AMES.
Moreover, researchers may adopt a cross-cultural approach to examine the factorial validity, construct validity, and predictive validity in different cultures. In terms of application, we suggest coaches or sport psychology consultants may use this 6-factor, item AMES to monitor athletes' training loadings and AME.
Research suggests that excessive training loads increase athletes' anger, anxiety, depression, and fatigue Raglin et al. Therefore, coaches or sport psychology consultants might use AMES to monitor athletes' training status to help athletes with appropriate training.
In a similar way, coaches or sports scientists may use AMES to monitor athletes' training loadings in pre-season or in-season Jeong et al.
Specifically, the AMES can help coaches or sports scientists understand whether changes in training loadings influence athletes' mental energy. Further, it is recommended that sport psychology consultants may use AMES to assess athletes' mental strength and weakness before conducting a psychological skills training PST Weinberg and Williams, , p.
To obtain a reliable and valid measure of the AME, we conducted five studies and developed a 6-factor, item AMES. We think this is just a starting point of the AME research in sports settings. We hope our study inspires more research on this issue, not only for the pursuit of knowledge but also for the exploration of psychological factors underlying sport excellence.
All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
American Educational Research Association American Psychological, Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education. Standards for Educational Psychological Testing. Washington, DC. Anderson, R. Investigating the optimal psychological state for peak performance in Australian elite athletes.
Sport Psychol. doi: CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Barbosa-Leiker, C. Is the assessment of the metabolic syndrome stable over time?
Testing longitudinal measurement invariance of the metabolic syndrome. Barbuto, J.
What is mental training? Mental performance training is Mental energy and sports performance combination Diuretic effect on liver detoxification techniques Omega- fats athletes energu to anf performance. According sportss a study published in Frontiers performznce Psychologymental energy is directly related to athletic performance. For example, a long-distance swimmer about to tackle Alcatraz can be at their peak physical performance but still need mental strength to combat the stress of unpredictable weather conditions and currents. To avoid this, athletes can work with mental performance coaches who can help with focus, motivation, setting achievable and realistic goals and managing anxiety. For more Diuretic effect on liver detoxification about PLOS Subject Areas, click here. Mental fatigue is a psychobiological state induced eprformance a Organic weight loss supplements duration of demanding cognitive tasks. Soprts effects of mental fatigue snd physical performance have been well investigated in the literature. However, the effect of mental fatigue on skilled performance in sports remains unclear. This study aimed to report a comprehensive systematic review investigating the carryover effects of mental fatigue on skilled performance among athletes. A thorough search was conducted on PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCOhost CENTRAL, SPORTDicusand Scopus to select relevant literature, as well as on Google Scholar and sources of reference for grey literature.
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