This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves. This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution. Unable to display preview.

Download preview PDF. Asano T, Havakawa N, Suzuki T Chitosan applications in wastewater sludge treatment. MIT Sea Grant Program, Cambridge, MA, pp — Google Scholar. Bough WA a Coagulation with chitosan—an aid to recovery of by-products from egg breaking wastes.

Poult Sci — Article CAS Google Scholar. Bough WA b Reduction of suspended solids in vegetable canning waste effluents by coagulation with chitosan. J Food Sci — Bough WA Chitosan—a polymer from seafood wastes, for use in treatment of food processing wastes and activated sludge.

Process Biochem 11 1 : 13— Bough WA, Landes DR Recovery and nutritional evaluation of proteinaceous solids separated from whey by coagulation with chitosan. J Dairy Sci 59 11 : — Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar.

Bough WA, Landes DR Treatment of food-processing wastes with chitosan and nutritional evaluation of coagulated by-products. Bough WA, Shewfelt AL, Salter WL Use of chitosan for the reduction and recovery of solids in poultry processing waste effluents.

Bough WA, Wu ACM, Campbell TE, Holmes MR, Perkins BE Influence of manufacturing variables on the characteristics and effectiveness of chitosan products. Coagulation of activated sludge suspensions.

Biotechnol Bioeng — Coughlin RW, Deshaies MR, Davis EM Chitosan in crab shell wastes purifies electroplating wastewater. Environ Prog 9 1 : 35— Water Res 26 4 : — Delben F, Gabrielli P, Muzzarelli RAA, Stefancich S Interaction of soluble chitosans with dyes in water. Thermodynamic data.

Carbohydr Polym 25— Eiden CA, Jewell CA, Wightman JP Interaction of lead and chromium with chitin and chitosan. J Appl Polym Sci — Giles CH, Hassan ASA, Subramanian RVR Adsorption at organic surfaces.

Adsorption of sulphonated azo dyes by chitin from aqueous solution. J Soc Dyers Colour — Hauer A The chelating properties of Kytex H chitosan.

Holme KR, Hall LD Novel metal chelating chitosan derivative: attachment of imi- nodiacetate moieties via a hydrophilic spacer group. Can J Chem — Hsien TY, Rorrer GL Effects of acylation and crosslinking on the material properties and cadmium ion adsorption capacity of porous chitosan beads.

Sep Sci Technol 30 12 : — Inoue K, Yamaguchi T, Iwasaki M, Ohto K, Yoshizuka K Adsorption of some platinum group metals on some complexane types of chemically modified chitosan.

Ishii H, Minegishi M, Lavitpichayawong B, Mitani T Synthesis of chitosan-amino acid conjugates and their use in heavy metal uptake. Int J Biol Macromol 17 1 : 21— Jha IN, Iyengar L, Prabhakara Rao AVS Removal of cadmium using chitosan. J Environ Eng 4 : — Johnson RA, Gallanger SM Use of coagulants to treat seafood processing wastewaters.

J Water Pollut Control Fed 56 8 : — CAS Google Scholar. Jun HK, Kim JS, No HK, Meyers SP Chitosan as a coagulant for recovery of proteinaceous solids from tofu wastewater. J Agric Food Chem 42 8 : — Kawamura Y, Mitsuhashi M, Tanibe H, Yoshida H Adsorption of metal ions on polyaminated highly porous chitosan chelating resin.

Ind Eng Chem Res — Keith LH, Telliard WA Priority pollutants. I: A perspective view. Environ Sci Technol — Knorr D Use of chitinous polymers in food—a challenge for food research and development.

Food Technol 38 1 : 85— Koyama Y, Taniguchi A Studies on chitin. Homogeneous cross-linking of chitosan for enhanced cupric ion adsorption.

Kurita K Binding of metal cations by chitin derivatives: improvement of adsorption ability through chemical modifications. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp — Kurita K, Chikaoka S, Koyama Y Improvement of adsorption capacity for copper II ion by N-nonanoylation of chitosan.

Chem Lett, pp 9— Kurita K, Sannan T, Iwakura Y Studies on chitin. Binding of metal cations. LaMer VK, Healy TW Adsorption-flocculation reactions of macromolecules at the solid-liquid interface. Rev Pure Appl Chem Madhavan P, Nair KGR Metal-binding property of chitosan from prawn waste.

Maghami GG, Roberts GA Studies on the adsorption of anionic dyes on chitosan. Makromol Chem — Manica R, Suder BJ, Wightmen JP Interaction of heavy metals with chitin and chitosan. Masri MS, Randall VG Chitosan and chitosan derivatives for removal of toxic metallic ions from manufacturing-plant waste streams.

Masri MS, Reuter FW, Friedman M Binding of metal cations by natural substances. Article Google Scholar. McKay G Mass transport processes for the adsorption of dyestuffs onto chitin.

Chem Eng Process 41— McKay G, Blair H, Findon A Kinetics of copper uptake on chitosan. In: Muzzarelli R, Jeuniaux C, Gooday GW eds Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Chitin and Chitosan, Senigallia, Italy, pp — McKay G, Blair HS, Gardner JR Adsorption of dyes on chitin.

Equilibrium studies. McKay G, Blair HS, Gardner J The adsorption of dyes on chitin. Intraparticle diffusion processes.

McKay G, Blair HS, Gardner JR The adsorption of dyes onto chitin in fixed bed columns and batch adsorbers. McKay G, Blair HS, Gardner JR Two resistance mass transport model for the adsorption of acid dye onto chitin in fixed beds.

McKay G, Blair HS, Gardner JG, McConvey IF Two-resistance mass transfer model for the adsorption of various dyestuffs onto chitin. McKay G, Blair HS, Hindon A Equilibrium studies for the sorption of metal ions onto chitosan.

Indian J Chem 28A: — Michelsen DL, Fulk LL, Woodby RM, Boardman GD Adsorptive and chemical pretreatment of reactive dye discharge. In: Tedd DW, Pohland FG eds Emerging Technologies in Hazardous Waste Management III.

ACS Symposium Series American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp — Mitani T, Fukumuro N, Yoshimoto C, Ishii H Effects of counter ions SOq-and C1 on the adsorption of copper and nickel ions by swollen chitosan beads. Agric Biol Chem 55 9 : Moore KJ, Johnson MG, Sistrunk WA Effect of polyelectrolyte treatments on waste strength of snap and dry bean wastewater.

J Food Sci 52 2 : — Muzzarelli RAA Natural Chelating Polymers. Pergamon Press, New York. Muzzarelli RAA Chitin. Muzzarelli RAA, Tanfani F N- Carboxymethyl chitosans and N- o-carboxybenzyl chitosans: novel chelating polyampholytes.

In: Hirano S, Tokura S eds Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Chitin and Chitosan, Sapporo, Japan, pp 45— Muzzarelli RAA, Tubertini O Chitin and chitosan as chromatographic supports and adsorbents for collection of metal ions from organic and aqueous solutions and seawater.

Talanta — Muzzarelli RAA, Rocchetti R, Muzzarelli MG The isolation of cobalt, nickel, and copper from manganese nodules by chelation chromatography on chitosan. Sep Sci Technol 13 2 : — Nair KR, Madhavan P Metal binding property of chitosan from different sources.

In: Hirano S, Tokura S eds Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Chitin and Chitosan, Sapporo, Japan, pp — No HK, Meyers SP a Crawfish chitosan as a coagulant in recovery of organic compounds from seafood processing streams.

J Agric Food Chem 37 3 : — No HK, Meyers SP b Recovery of amino acids from seafood processing wastewater with a dual chitosan-based ligand-exchange system.

J Food Sci 54 1 : 60—62, Bull Chem Soc Jpn 60 1 : — In: Weber WJ ed Physicochemicalm Processes for Water Quality Control. Wiley, New York, pp 61— Park RD, Cho YY, Kim KY, Born HS, Oh CS, Lee HC a Adsorption of Toluidine Blue O onto chitosan.

Agric Chem Biotechnol 38 5 : — Park RD, Cho YY, La YG, Kim CS b Application of chitosan as an adsorbent of dyes in wastewater from dyeworks.

Peniche-Covas C, Alvarez LW, Arguelles-Monal W The adsorption of mercuric ions by chitosan. Peniston QP, Johnson EL Method for treating an aqueous medium with chitosan and derivatives of chitin to remove an impurity. patent 3,, Portier RJ Chitin immobilization systems for hazardous waste detoxification and biodegradation.

In: Eecles II ed Immobilization of Ions by Naturally Occurring Materials. Norwood, London, pp — Portier RJ, Nelson JA, Christianson JC Biotreatment of dilute contaminated ground water using an immobilized microbe packed bed reactor.

Environ Prog 8: — Randal JM, Randal VG, McDonald GM, Young RN, Masri MS Removal of trace quantities of nickel from solution. Rorrer GL, Hsien TY, Way JD Synthesis of porous-magnetic chitosan beads for removal of cadmium ions from waste water. Sakaguchi T, Nakajima A Recovery of uranium by chitin phosphate and chitosan phosphate.

Sandford PA, Hutchings GP Chitosan-A natural, cationic biopolymer: commercial applications. Senstad C, Almas KA Use of chitosan in the recovery of protein from shrimp processing wastewater.

In: Muzzarelli R, Jeuniaux C, Gooday GW eds Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Chitin and Chitosan, Senigallia, Italy, pp Seo H, Kinemura Y Preparation and some properties of chitosan beads. In: SkjâakBraek G, Anthonsen T, Sandford P eds Proceedings from the 4th International Conference on Chitin and Chitosan, Trondheim, Norway, pp — Seo T, Hagura S, Kanbara T, Iijima T Interaction of dyes with chitosan derivatives.

Shimizu Y, Kono K, Kim IS, Takagishi T Effects of added metal ions on the interaction of chitin and partially deacetylated chitin with an azo dye carrying hydroxyl groups.

Sievers DM, Jenner MW, Hanna M Treatment of dilute manure wastewaters by chemical coagulation. Trans ASAE 37 2 : — Smith B, Koonce T, Hudson S Decolorizing dye wastewater using chitosan. Am Dyest Rep 82 10 : 18— Stefancich S, Delben F, Muzzarelli RAA Interaction of soluble chitosans with dyes in water.

Optical evidence. Carbohydr Polym 17— Suder BJ, Wightman JP Interaction of heavy metals with chitin and chitosan. Cadmium and zinc. In: Ottewill RH, Rochester CH, Smith AL eds Adsorption from Solution.

Academic Press, London, pp — Chapter Google Scholar. nechita ugal. In the last time, different wastewater decontamination methods that include chemical precipitation, nanofiltration, solvent extraction, ion exchange, reverse osmosis and adsorption have been extensively studied.

Out of these methods, adsorption is particularly attracting scientific focus mainly because of its high efficiency, low cost and easy handling and high availability of different adsorbents [ 1 ].

Chitosan is a versatile polysaccharide widely distributed in nature second most abundant biopolymers after cellulose produced by alkaline N-deacetylation of chitin. Many application fields are described in scientific publications regarding the use of chitin, chitosan and their derivatives.

Wastewater treatment using chitin or chitosan is an important application. According to this, there are many research studies that highlight the biosorbent ability of chitosan and their composites to remove the pollutants from wastewater.

textile wastewaters [ 6 ], as well as for the removal of other organic pollutants such as organochloride pesticides, organic oxidised or fatty and oil impurities.

Due to the high performances, chitosan derivatives are used as adsorption additives [ 5 ] in many research investigations. Some examples are derivatives that contain heteroatoms based on nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur or complex combinations of chitosan with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid EDTA and diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid DTPA.

In the last time, the chitosan composites have been tested in wastewater treatments for adsorption of dyes [ 6 ] and heavy metals [ 7 — 9 ]. To form composites with chitosan, different substances have been used, such as montmorillonite, polyurethane, activated clay, bentonite, zeolites, oil palm ash, calcium alginate, polyvinyl alcohol, cellulose, magnetite, sand, cotton fibres, perlite and ceramic alumina [ 10 — 14 ].

Some experimental results obtained on static adsorption methods applied on industrial and municipal wastewaters are presented. Chitosan is a partially deacetylated polymer obtained by the alkaline deacetylation of chitin, a biopolymer extracted from shellfish sources.

Native chitosan is insoluble in water or organic solvents, but at acidic pH below pH 5 , when the free amino groups are protonated, chitosan becomes a soluble cationic polymer with high charge density [ 16 — 18 ]. The infrared IR absorption spectra of chitosan and chitin are presented in Figure 2.

Chemical structural representation of chitin a and chitosan b. Infrared spectra of chitin A and chitosan B [ 19 ]. Chitosan has many attractive properties such as hydrophobicity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity and the presence of very reactive amino —NH 2 and hydroxyl —OH groups in its backbone, which makes chitosan to be used as an effective adsorbent material for the removal of wastewater pollutants.

The main advantage of chitosan over other polysaccharides cellulose or starch is their chemical structure that allows specific modifications to design polymers for selected applications. On the one hand, their reactive groups are able to develop composites with different compounds that have proven to have better capacity to adsorb the wastewater pollutants and to resist in acidic environment.

Some examples include bentonite, kaolinite, oil palm ash, montmorillonite, polyurethane, zeolites, magnetite, etc. On the other hand, their cationic charge chitosan is single cationic biopolymer is able to neutralise and successfully flocculate the anionic suspended colloidal particles and reduce the levels of chemical oxygen demand, chlorides and turbidity in wastewaters [ 2 , 3 ].

Flocculation is an essential phenomenon in industrial wastewater treatment. Organic polymeric flocculants are widely used nowadays due to its remarkable ability to flocculate efficiently with low dosage compared with inorganic coagulants salts of multivalent metals that are being commonly used due to its low cost and ease of use but have low flocculating efficiency and present the residual concentration of metal in the treated water.

In this context, the coagulation and flocculation properties of chitosan given by their cationic charge can be exploited to remove the negative-charged colloidal organic or inorganic impurities from wastewaters [ 16 ].

Due to its cationic unique feature, chitosan is one of the most promising biopolymers for extensive application in wastewater treatment, and its coagulative action is very effective compared with the mineral coagulants such as aluminium sulphate, polyethyleneimine and polyacrylamide in removing different pollutants from aqueous solution [ 20 , 21 ].

The protonated amine groups along the chain obtained by dissolving of chitosan in acids facilitate electrostatic interactions between polymer chains and the negatively charged contaminants metal anions, dyes, organic compounds, etc.

Chitosan coagulation produces better quality floaters, namely, larger floaters with faster settling velocity. The effectiveness of chitosan for coagulating mineral suspensions can be improved due to the presence of inorganic solutes or due to the addition of materials extracted from soils at high pH [ 26 ].

Based on the high affinity of chitosan for different contaminants, there are many studies where these properties of chitosan for removing of dyes from solution [ 22 ] or textile wastewater [ 27 , 28 ], organic matter e.

lignin and chlorinated compounds in pulp and paper mill wastewater [ 29 ], heavy metals and phenolic compounds in cardboard-mill wastewater [ 30 , 31 ] and inorganic suspensions in kaolinite suspension are demonstrated [ 32 ]. In this context, Abu Hassan et al.

Zeenat et al. They examined the flocculation process regarding the influence parameters such as chitosan dosage, optimum pH and mixing times. The chitosan showed significant difference by successfully flocculating the negatively charged suspended particles, thereby reducing chemical oxygen demand with Effect of chitosan treatment on the ghee wastewater quality [ 3 ].

In our studies [ 34 , 35 ] we have been using the chitosan with high molecular mass and The obtained results highlighted a high efficiency for suspended solid removal Variation of textile wastewater colour after treatment with a initial wastewater, b synthetic resin Purolite C and c chitosan.

Adsorption has been proven to be a reliable and economical alternative to remove the pollutants from wastewaters, and the use of chitosan as biosorbent for heavy metal ions is reported in a large quantity of literature studies.

The bond between the metal ion and chitosan functional groups in the biosorption process involves different phenomena as complexation, electrostatic attraction, micro-precipitation and ion exchange. The mechanism of complex formation between chitosan and metal ions during adsorption process can be developed in two ways: Bridge model : metal ions are bonded with various amino groups from the same chain or from different chains through complex inter- or intramolecular reactions.

Pendant model : metal ions are bonded with amino groups in a hanging manner. In our experiments, we tested the adsorption ability of chitosan for heavy metal ions from textile wastewaters Cu II and Pb II and aqueous solutions Zn II and Fe III.

The removal efficiency was In our studies the maximum adsorption of Cu II and Pb II ions from textile wastewaters was obtained at pH value of 8 Figure 6 a and b.

The influence of pH value on the adsorption of metal ions from wastewater: a Pb II content and b Cu II content. The main functional groups of chitosan which are potential points for adsorption of metal ions are —OH and —NH 2. As pH value increases, the degree of protonation of functional groups decreases.

This influences the process forming of complex coordination bonds between the metal ions and functional groups. The influence of temperature 20, 40, 60 °C on the dissociation process was verified by pH and conductivity measurements. The effects of chitosan dosage 0. The duration of action of the metal ions on chitosan is the main factor affecting the final product.

The complex formed between chitosan and Zn was analysed by spectrophotometric method at λ of nm Figure 7 a and b. High quantity of chitosan in complex formed between chitosan and Zn involves longer contact time to reach the adsorption equilibrium.

farmlands and industrial wastewater. Chitosan as adsorbent could be regenerated and reused, being an effective adsorbent for zinc ions and other metal ions from wastewater [ 36 ]. SEM structural analysis of chitosan a and chitosan-Fe III chelated complex b.

In other research studies, the removal of Fe III ions from aqueous solution using chitosan was studied [ 37 ]. Retention of Fe III ions on chitosan is influenced by factors as contact time, the concentration ratio of the phases, pH and mixing rate. Retention of Fe III ions on chitosan is strongly dependent on the pH changes.

For pH lower than 3, chitosan is dissolved, and for pH higher than 4. Scanning electron microscope SEM images showed the formed complexes and the chemical modification of chitosan depends on the ion concentration. Structural analysis by SEM provides an indication that the mechanism of adsorption of Fe III ions on chitosan is a complex phenomenon involving the formation of nodosities on the chitosan structure.

The mechanism of retention of Fe III ions on chitosan is a complex phenomenon and involves the formation of lumps on the structure of chitosan through the surface adsorption of metal ions and strong coordination with functional groups Figure 8.

Chitosan is a very promising adsorbent, which can be modified in many ways grafting, cross linking, functionalisation for forming composites, etc. Because chitosan is very sensitive to pH, forming either gel or dissolve depending on pH values, some cross linking reagents such as glyoxal, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, epichlorohydrin, ethylene glycon diglycidyl ether and isocyanates have been used to improve its performance as adsorbent [ 38 ].

This process of cross linking stabilises chitosan in acid solutions becoming insoluble and enhances its mechanical properties [ 39 ]. Recently, chitosan-based metal particle composites have been studied increasingly as an alternative adsorbent in water treatment, such as using metals [ 40 ], metal oxides [ 41 ], magnetite [ 42 ] and bimetals [ 43 ], to adsorb heavy metals and dyes from wastewater.

For example, chitosan-coated magnetite nanoparticles CMNP were prepared and used as bactericidal agent to remove organic contaminants and bacteria from water [ 14 ].

Moradi Dehaghi et al. The dissolution and swelling studies were performed on these composites, and crystallinity and surface morphology characterisation using X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy FT-IR and scanning electron microscope of nanocomposite samples were studied.

Based on the high sorbent capacity, CS-ZnONP beads could explore a new biocompatible and eco-friendly strategy for pesticide removal and could be used in water treatment process. Schematic representation of removal mechanism of chromium ions by chitosan-magnetite nanocomposite strip [ 42 ].

In their studies, Sureshkumar et al. After UV-VIS, X-ray diffraction and atomic force microscopy characterisation, these nanoparticles were mixed with chitosan solution to form hybrid nanocomposites. The affinity of hybrid nanocomposite for chromium was studied using K 2 Cr 2 O 7 potassium dichromate solution as the heavy metal solution containing Cr VI ions.

Adsorption tests were carried out using hybrid nanocomposite strips at different time intervals compared with chitosan-only strip Figure 9. The chromium removal efficiency of chitosan strip is Based on these results, the chitosan-magnetite nanocomposite strips are highly efficient for chromium removal from tannery wastewaters.

Abd-Elhakeem et al. In their research they find that the adsorption capacities of the different contaminants considerably increased with chitosan-magnetite nanoparticle concentration.

In the same studies, the influence on the bacterial growth was partially inhibited at concentration 0. The complete growth inhibition has occurred at concentration of 0. Hritcu et al. Their sorption batch experiments were conducted for optimising the pH, initial target ion concentration and adsorbent amount.

The experimental data have emphasised that Langmuir isotherm model is the best fit; the material has a maximum adsorption capacity of Regeneration study demonstrated that Fe-Cc particles might be reused up to three times without significant loss in adsorption capacity. Saifuddin and Dimara [ 46 ] have investigated the potential and effectiveness of applying chitosan-magnetite nanocomposite particles as a primary coagulant and flocculants compared with chitosan for pretreatment of palm oil mill effluent POME.

The experiments were carried out under different conditions of dosage and pH, and the performance was assessed in terms of turbidity, total suspended solids TSS and chemical oxygen demand COD reductions.

At the optimum conditions of pH and chitosan-magnetite, dosage was obtained about The synergistic effect of cationic character of both the chitosan amino group and the magnetite ion in the pretreatment process for POME brings about enhanced performance for effective agglomeration, adsorption and coagulation.

The results showed that coagulation with chitosan-magnetite or chitosan was an effective and environmentally friendly pretreatment technique for palm oil mill effluent wastewater compared to alum and alum polychloride-PAC which creates hazardous residual waste.

Due to their thermal and chemical stability and great potential for the separation of ions by cation exchange, zeolites are especially appealing among all kinds of inorganic fillers. Chitosan-zeolite composites have shown good adsorption properties for different pollutants such as dyes, phosphates, nitrates, ammonium and humic acids [ 47 — 49 ] as well as for the removal of heavy metal cations [ 50 , 51 ].

Nesic et al. Wan Ngah et al. The kinetic, adsorption isotherm and desorption studies have been completed. The optimum pH value was 3 and the best isotherm was fitted by the Redlich-Peterson and Langmuir models.

The percentage of Cu II desorption was only Our studies were focused on obtaining of chitosan-zeolite CZ composites using commercial chitosan and zeolites from local volcanic tuff deposits with 71— These composites were applied on organic impurities adsorption from poultry farm wastewaters.

Chitosan-zeolite composites have been prepared by the encapsulation method according to the procedure described by Wan Ngah et al. Aiming to form the composite beads, the obtained suspension was added dropwise into the precipitation bath containing NaOH, and the mixture was stirred for 3 h.

The formed beads were filtered and washed with distilled water to remove excess of NaOH and finally air-dried. After this, the beads of chitosan-zeolite composite were structurally characterised by SEM image analyses and EDX spectral analyses and used as adsorbent for the organic impurities from wastewater COD and greases and oil impurities.

From the SEM micrograph presented in Figure 11 , chitosan-zeolite composite has rough and flaky surface. Zeolite is present as loose aggregates of micrometric octahedral crystals included in cavities of a continuous polysaccharide matrix, in the case of evaporative drying; the shrinkage of the polysaccharide gel has led to a physical separation between polymer and embedded zeolites.

Chitosan-zeolite composite SEM images. The EDX spectra Figure 12 show the presence of sodium, which is originated from zeolite where the sodium ions counterbalance the negative charge of zeolite. Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, aluminium and silicon were found in chitosan-zeolite composites since they are the major components of chitosan and zeolite.

EDX spectra of chitosan-zeolite composites. Experiments were carried out at 25 °C where different amounts of chitosan-zeolite composite ranging from 30 to mg were mixed with 50 ml wastewater and stirred at rpm for 60 min.

After adsorption, the mixture was filtered, and the removal percentage of chemical oxygen demand COD and fatty impurities was calculated using Eq. The effect of chitosan-zeolite composite dosage on the COD reduction.

The effect of adsorbent dosage on the removal of COD is shown in Figure The quantity of COD removed increases as the chitosan-zeolite dosage increased. This was due to the increase in the number of active sites on chitosan-zeolite composites.

The dosage of 0. It can be observed that over this dosage, no further increase exists in the percentage removal of COD.

Hence, applying chitosan-based adsorbents with numerous modifications is a cutting-edge approach to eliminating toxic pollutants from aquatic systems with the global aim of making potable water available worldwide.

This review presents an overview of distinct materials and methods for developing novel chitosan-based nanocomposites for wastewater treatment. Keywords: Biosorbents; Chitosan; Nano-biocomposites; Nanoparticles; Wastewater treatment.

Abstract Water quality is deteriorating continuously as increasing levels of toxic inorganic and organic contaminants mostly discharging into the aquatic environment.

Synthesis and swelling characteristics of chitosan and CMC grafted sodium acrylate-co-acrylamide using modified nanoclay and examining its efficacy for removal of dyes.

Ngah WSW, Wan Ngah WS, Fatinathan S Adsorption of Cu II ions in aqueous solution using chitosan beads, chitosan—GLA beads and chitosan—alginate beads. Ngah WSW, Wan Ngah WS, Teong LC, Hanafiah MAK Adsorption of dyes and heavy metal ions by chitosan composites: A review.

Nguyen LM, Nguyen TTH Enhanced heavy metals biosorption using chemically modified chitosan coated microwave activated sugarcane baggage ash composite biosorbents.

SN Applied Sciences 1. Nippatla N, Philip L Electrocoagulation-floatation assisted pulsed power plasma technology for the complete mineralization of potentially toxic dyes and real textile wastewater.

Process Safety and Environmental Protection Olivera S, Muralidhara HB, Venkatesh K, Guna VK, Gopalakrishna K, Kumar KY Qi C, Zhao L, Lin Y, Wu D a. Qi L, Xu Z Lead sorption from aqueous solutions on chitosan nanoparticles. Qi X, Wu L, Su T, Zhang J, Dong W b. Polysaccharide-based cationic hydrogels for dye adsorption.

Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces Rabea EI In vitro assessment of antimicrobial property of O- phenoxyacetic chitosan compounds on plant pathogens.

Journal of Chitin and Chitosan Science Ramírez-Estrada A, Mena-Cervantes VY, Fuentes-García J, Vazquez-Arenas J, Palma-Goyes R, Flores-Vela AI, … Hernández Altamirano R Cr III removal from synthetic and real tanning effluents using an electro-precipitation method.

Rao TP, Prasada Rao T, Kala R, Daniel S Metal ion-imprinted polymers—Novel materials for selective recognition of inorganics.

Analytica Chimica Acta Rinaudo M, Milas M, Desbrières J Characterization and solution properties of chitosan and chitosan derivatives. Applications of Chitin and Chitosan Saha S, Zubair M, Khosa MA, Song S, Ullah A Keratin and chitosan biosorbents for wastewater treatment: a review.

Journal of Polymers and the Environment Salehi E, Daraei P, Shamsabadi AA A review on chitosan-based adsorptive membranes. Salehi R, Arami M, Mahmoodi NM, Bahrami H, Khorramfar S Novel biocompatible composite Chitosan—zinc oxide nanoparticle : Preparation, characterization and dye adsorption properties.

Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces Sarode S, Upadhyay P, Khosa MA, Mak T, Shakir A, Song S, Ullah A Overview of wastewater treatment methods with special focus on biopolymer chitin-chitosan. Shariatinia Z Pharmaceutical applications of chitosan. Sheth Y, Dharaskar S, Khalid M, Sonawane S An environment friendly approach for heavy metal removal from industrial wastewater using chitosan based biosorbent: A review.

Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments Shukla SK, Mishra AK, Arotiba OA, Mamba BB Chitosan-based nanomaterials: a state-of-the-art review.

Int J Biol Macromol Sun K, Gao B, Zhang Z, Zhang G, Liu X, Zhao Y, Xing B Sorption of endocrine disrupting chemicals by condensed organic matter in soils and sediments. Thirugnanasambandham K, Sivakumar V, Prakash M Treatment of egg processing industry effluent using chitosan as an adsorbent.

Journal of the Serbian Chemical Society Tsai W-T, Hsu H-C, Su T-Y, Lin K-Y, Lin C-M Adsorption characteristics of bisphenol-A in aqueous solutions onto hydrophobic zeolite.

Vakili M, Rafatullah M, Salamatinia B, Abdullah AZ, Ibrahim MH, Tan KB, Gholami Z, Amouzgar P Application of chitosan and its derivatives as adsorbents for dye removal from water and wastewater: a review.

Vidal RRL, Moraes JS Removal of organic pollutants from wastewater using chitosan: a literature review. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Volpin F, Fons E, Chekli L, Kim JE, Jang A, Shon HK Hybrid forward osmosis-reverse osmosis for wastewater reuse and seawater desalination: Understanding the optimal feed solution to minimise fouling.

Wong YC, Szeto YS, Cheung WH, McKay G Equilibrium studies for acid dye adsorption onto chitosan. Langmuir Wu ACM Determination of molecular-weight distribution of chitosan by high-performance liquid chromatography.

Methods in Enzymology Yuwei C, Jianlong W Preparation and characterization of magnetic chitosan nanoparticles and its application for Cu II removal.

ZabihiSahebi A, Koushkbaghi S, Pishnamazi M, Askari A, Khosravi R, Irani M Zahedifar M, Seyedi N, Shafiei S, Basij M Surface-modified magnetic biochar: Highly efficient adsorbents for removal of Pb ΙΙ and Cd ΙΙ.

Materials Chemistry and Physics Zhang X, Ye C, Pi K, Huang J, Xia M, Gerson AR Sustainable treatment of desulfurization wastewater by ion exchange and bipolar membrane electrodialysis hybrid technology. Separation and Purification Technology Zubair M, Arshad M, Ullah A This acrylamide-free treatment system delivers consistent results.

It has an identical footprint compared to traditional active treatment systems. There is reduced frequency of backwashing compared to traditional active treatment systems. The actual flow range is dependent on mechanized equipment and pumping capabilities.

It can reduce operational costs compared to traditional active treatment systems. Using a chitosan based solution enhances the efficiency and consistency of most filtration equipment used in active treatment systems, by aiding the capture of finer solids, reduce the frequency and difficulty of back-washing, allow the particles to settle faster in settling tanks, and producing solids and contaminants that have a lower percentage of water, which reduces hauling and disposal costs.

Semi-Passive Water Treatment System. Semi-passive systems deliver consistent results. It's an acrylamide-free treatment system with low maintenance requirement and low mechanized equipment requirement. This significantly reduces the footprint compared to traditional active treatment systems.

It requires the HaloKlear SockMaster Manifold kit and pump rated GPM , and does not require backwashing. This is low cost compared to traditional active treatment systems. It may use coarse filtration, settling, or both to improve cost effectiveness. Semi-passive systems can be used in conjunction with passive treatment models.

They may involve contaminant and nutrient removal. Plug-in-play a variety of configurations including: BMPs, dewaterting bags, and recirculation systems. Since only low mechanized equipment is required, the maintenance and cost is significantly cheaper than using an active system.

This acrylamide-free treatment system has the lowest maintenance requirement. This system minimizes or eliminates the need for water storage on-site.

Actual flow rates are dependent on best management practice BMP design and the frequency and severity of storm events.

The passive system uses natural filtration and settling to reduce costs. This is the lowest cost treatment system. Passive treatment systems are the most cost-effective model for meeting EPA requirements.

Since there are no mechanized equipment requirements and no need for water storage, it typically requires the least amount of maintenance and can be easily applied to new and existing BMPs. The combination of a chitosan solution and natural filtration, you can expect to reduce your turbidity down to anywhere between NTUs.

Chitosan flocculants have been used for decades across a variety of industries because it performs so well in a wide variety of water treatment applications. When soil is exposed during construction activities, water runoff generated by storm events tends to pick up soil particles and carry them to the nearest body of water.

Particles also contaminate water when stormwater or groundwater enters into an excavation. During a construction project, site stormwater, runoff, or dewatering operations may need treatment in order to remove the particles that are in the water.

Larger particles, such as pebbles and sand, quickly settle to the bottom once the flow rate slows. However, clays and fine silts tend to stay suspended.

These suspended particles result in turbidity that can travel many miles in streams or keep ponds and lakes looking muddy for a long time after a storm. Chitosan based flocculants can help remove turbidity caused by a wide variety of particle types and sizes.

Suder BJ, Wightman JP Interaction of heavy metals with chitin and chitosan. Cadmium and zinc. In: Ottewill RH, Rochester CH, Smith AL eds Adsorption from Solution. Academic Press, London, pp — Chapter Google Scholar. Biotechnol Prog 8: — Thomé JP, Hugla JL, Weltrowski M Affinity of chitosan and related derivatives for PCBs.

In: Brine CJ, Sandford PA, Zikakis JP eds Proceedings from the 5th International Conference on Chitin and Chitosan, Princeton, NJ, pp — Thomé JP, Jeuniaux C, Weltrowski M Applications of chitosan for the elimination of organochlorine xenobiotics from wastewater.

In: Goosen MFA ed Applications of Chitin and Chitosan. Technomic, Lancaster, PA, pp — Thomé JP, Van Daele Y Adsorption of polychlorinated biphenyls PCB on chitosan and application to decontamination of polluted stream waters.

Udaybhaskar P, Iyengar L, Prabhakara Rao AVS Hexavalent chromium interaction with chitosan. Van Daele Y, Thomé JP Purification of PCB contaminated water by chitosan: a biological test of efficiency using the common barbel, Barbus barbus.

Bull Environ Contam Toxicol — Article PubMed Google Scholar. Venkatrao B, Baradarajan A, Sastry CA Adsorption of dyestuffs on chitosan. Wada S, Ichikawa H, Tatsumi K Removal of phenols from wastewater by soluble and immobilized tyrosinase. Wu ACM, Bough WA A study of variables in the chitosan manufacturing process in relation to molecular-weight distribution, chemical characteristics and waste-treatment effectiveness.

MIT Sea Grant Program, Cambridge, MA, pp 88— Wu ACM, Bough WA, Holmes MR, Perkins BE Influence of manufacturing variables on the characteristics and effectiveness of chitosan products.

Coagulation of cheese whey solids. Yamamoto H Chiral interaction of chitosan with azo dyes. Yang TC, Zall RR Absorption of metals by natural polymers generated from seafood processing wastes. Ind Eng Chem Prod Res Dev — Download references. Department of Food Science and Technology, Catholic University of Taegu-Hyosung, Hayang, , South Korea.

Department of Food Science, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, , USA. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar.

Reprints and permissions. No, H. Application of Chitosan for Treatment of Wastewaters. In: Ware, G. eds Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, vol Springer, New York, NY.

Publisher Name : Springer, New York, NY. Print ISBN : Online ISBN : eBook Packages : Springer Book Archive. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Policies and ethics. Skip to main content. Abstract Significant volumes of wastewaters, with organic and inorganic contaminants such as suspended solids, dyes, pesticides, toxicants, and heavy metals, are discharged from various industries.

Keywords Chemical Oxygen Demand Volatile Solid Cheese Whey Chitosan Derivative Chitosan Bead These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. Buying options Chapter EUR eBook EUR Softcover Book EUR Hardcover Book EUR Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout Purchases are for personal use only Learn about institutional subscriptions.

Preview Unable to display preview. References Asano T, Havakawa N, Suzuki T Chitosan applications in wastewater sludge treatment. Google Scholar Bough WA a Coagulation with chitosan—an aid to recovery of by-products from egg breaking wastes.

Article CAS Google Scholar Bough WA b Reduction of suspended solids in vegetable canning waste effluents by coagulation with chitosan. Article CAS Google Scholar Bough WA Chitosan—a polymer from seafood wastes, for use in treatment of food processing wastes and activated sludge.

Google Scholar Bough WA, Landes DR Recovery and nutritional evaluation of proteinaceous solids separated from whey by coagulation with chitosan. Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar Bough WA, Landes DR Treatment of food-processing wastes with chitosan and nutritional evaluation of coagulated by-products.

Google Scholar Bough WA, Shewfelt AL, Salter WL Use of chitosan for the reduction and recovery of solids in poultry processing waste effluents. Article CAS Google Scholar Bough WA, Wu ACM, Campbell TE, Holmes MR, Perkins BE Influence of manufacturing variables on the characteristics and effectiveness of chitosan products.

Google Scholar Coughlin RW, Deshaies MR, Davis EM Chitosan in crab shell wastes purifies electroplating wastewater. Article CAS Google Scholar Delben F, Gabrielli P, Muzzarelli RAA, Stefancich S Interaction of soluble chitosans with dyes in water.

Google Scholar Eiden CA, Jewell CA, Wightman JP Interaction of lead and chromium with chitin and chitosan. Article CAS Google Scholar Giles CH, Hassan ASA, Subramanian RVR Adsorption at organic surfaces.

Google Scholar Hauer A The chelating properties of Kytex H chitosan. Google Scholar Holme KR, Hall LD Novel metal chelating chitosan derivative: attachment of imi- nodiacetate moieties via a hydrophilic spacer group.

Article CAS Google Scholar Hsien TY, Rorrer GL Effects of acylation and crosslinking on the material properties and cadmium ion adsorption capacity of porous chitosan beads. Article CAS Google Scholar Inoue K, Yamaguchi T, Iwasaki M, Ohto K, Yoshizuka K Adsorption of some platinum group metals on some complexane types of chemically modified chitosan.

Article CAS Google Scholar Ishii H, Minegishi M, Lavitpichayawong B, Mitani T Synthesis of chitosan-amino acid conjugates and their use in heavy metal uptake. Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar Jha IN, Iyengar L, Prabhakara Rao AVS Removal of cadmium using chitosan.

Article CAS Google Scholar Johnson RA, Gallanger SM Use of coagulants to treat seafood processing wastewaters. CAS Google Scholar Jun HK, Kim JS, No HK, Meyers SP Chitosan as a coagulant for recovery of proteinaceous solids from tofu wastewater. Article CAS Google Scholar Kawamura Y, Mitsuhashi M, Tanibe H, Yoshida H Adsorption of metal ions on polyaminated highly porous chitosan chelating resin.

Article CAS Google Scholar Keith LH, Telliard WA Priority pollutants. Google Scholar Knorr D Use of chitinous polymers in food—a challenge for food research and development. CAS Google Scholar Koyama Y, Taniguchi A Studies on chitin. Google Scholar Kurita K Binding of metal cations by chitin derivatives: improvement of adsorption ability through chemical modifications.

Google Scholar Kurita K, Chikaoka S, Koyama Y Improvement of adsorption capacity for copper II ion by N-nonanoylation of chitosan. Google Scholar Kurita K, Sannan T, Iwakura Y Studies on chitin. Google Scholar LaMer VK, Healy TW Adsorption-flocculation reactions of macromolecules at the solid-liquid interface.

CAS Google Scholar Madhavan P, Nair KGR Metal-binding property of chitosan from prawn waste. Google Scholar Maghami GG, Roberts GA Studies on the adsorption of anionic dyes on chitosan.

Article CAS Google Scholar Manica R, Suder BJ, Wightmen JP Interaction of heavy metals with chitin and chitosan. Google Scholar Masri MS, Randall VG Chitosan and chitosan derivatives for removal of toxic metallic ions from manufacturing-plant waste streams.

Google Scholar Masri MS, Reuter FW, Friedman M Binding of metal cations by natural substances. Article Google Scholar McKay G Mass transport processes for the adsorption of dyestuffs onto chitin. Article CAS Google Scholar McKay G, Blair H, Findon A Kinetics of copper uptake on chitosan.

Google Scholar McKay G, Blair HS, Gardner JR Adsorption of dyes on chitin. Google Scholar McKay G, Blair HS, Gardner J The adsorption of dyes on chitin. Google Scholar McKay G, Blair HS, Gardner JR The adsorption of dyes onto chitin in fixed bed columns and batch adsorbers. Article CAS Google Scholar McKay G, Blair HS, Gardner JR Two resistance mass transport model for the adsorption of acid dye onto chitin in fixed beds.

Article CAS Google Scholar McKay G, Blair HS, Gardner JG, McConvey IF Two-resistance mass transfer model for the adsorption of various dyestuffs onto chitin. Article CAS Google Scholar McKay G, Blair HS, Hindon A Equilibrium studies for the sorption of metal ions onto chitosan.

Google Scholar Michelsen DL, Fulk LL, Woodby RM, Boardman GD Adsorptive and chemical pretreatment of reactive dye discharge. Google Scholar Mitani T, Fukumuro N, Yoshimoto C, Ishii H Effects of counter ions SOq-and C1 on the adsorption of copper and nickel ions by swollen chitosan beads.

This field of research has a great area for improvement, and based on a large quantity of promising results, it is the hope that chitosan and their composites can be applied commercially instead of only at laboratory scale.

Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3. Edited by Emad Shalaby. Open access peer-reviewed chapter Applications of Chitosan in Wastewater Treatment Written By Petronela Nechita. DOWNLOAD FOR FREE Share Cite Cite this chapter There are two ways to cite this chapter:.

Choose citation style Select style Vancouver APA Harvard IEEE MLA Chicago Copy to clipboard Get citation. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation. IntechOpen Biological Activities and Application of Marine Polysaccharides Edited by Emad Shalaby.

From the Edited Volume Biological Activities and Application of Marine Polysaccharides Edited by Emad A. Shalaby Book Details Order Print. Chapter metrics overview 6, Chapter Downloads View Full Metrics. Impact of this chapter. Abstract In the last time, the use of natural additives that are biocompatible, are biodegradable, have low toxicity and are from renewable resources attracted attention of many researchers due to their high ability to retain different pollutants from wastewaters.

Keywords Chitosan Chitosan composites Wastewaters Chitosan-magnetite Chitosan-zeolites Adsorption isotherm Adsorption kinetics Pollutants Total suspended solids Chemical oxygen demand Heavy metal ions Removal efficiency. Introduction In the last time, different wastewater decontamination methods that include chemical precipitation, nanofiltration, solvent extraction, ion exchange, reverse osmosis and adsorption have been extensively studied.

Chitosan structure and properties Chitosan is a partially deacetylated polymer obtained by the alkaline deacetylation of chitin, a biopolymer extracted from shellfish sources. Table 1. Table 2.

The wastewater pollutant removal efficiency after chitosan treatment. Chitosan as adsorbent of metal ions Adsorption has been proven to be a reliable and economical alternative to remove the pollutants from wastewaters, and the use of chitosan as biosorbent for heavy metal ions is reported in a large quantity of literature studies.

Chitosan-zeolite composites in wastewater treatment Due to their thermal and chemical stability and great potential for the separation of ions by cation exchange, zeolites are especially appealing among all kinds of inorganic fillers.

References 1. Mudasir A, Shakeel A, Babu Lal S and Saiqa I: Adsorption of heavy metal ions: Role of chitosan and cellulose for water treatment. Zha F, Li S, Chang Y: Preparation and adsorption property of chitosan beads bearing β-cyclodextrin cross-linked by 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate.

Zeenat MA, Abdul Jabbar L, Abdul Khalique A, Mohammad Y K: Extraction and characterization of chitosan from Indian prawn Fenneropenaeus indicus and its applications on waste water treatment of local ghee industry. IOSR J. Wang L, Xing R, Liu S, Cai S, Yu H, Feng J, Li R, Li P: Synthesis and evaluation of a thiourea-modified chitosan derivative applied for adsorption of Hg II from synthetic wastewater.

Mouzdahir Y, Elmchaouri A, Mahboub R, Gil A, Korili S A: Equilibrium modeling for the adsorption of methylene blue from aqueous solution on activated clay minerals.

Desalination ; : — 7. Wan M W, Kan C C, Buenda D R, Maria L P D: Adsorption of copper II and lead II ions from aqueous solution on chitosan-coated sand. Wan Ngaha W S, Teonga LC, Hanafiaha MAKM: Adsorption of dyes and heavy metal ions by chitosan composites: A review.

Shahram MD, Bahar R, Ali Mashinchian M, Parviz A: Removal of permethrin pesticide from water by chitosan—zinc oxide nanoparticles composite as an adsorbent. Saudi Chem. Kyzas G Z, Bikiaris D N: Recent modifications of chitosan for adsorption applications: A critical and systematic review.

Drugs ; 13 : Vaishnavi S: Fabrication of chitosan—magnetite nanocomposite strip for chromium removal. Abd-Elhakeem M A, Alkhulaqi T A: Simple, rapid and eefficient water purification by chitosan coated magnetite nanoparticles. Szyguła A, Guibal E, Palacín MA, Ruiz M, Sastre A M: Removal of an anionic dye Acid Blue 92 by coagulation—flocculation using chitosan.

Rinaudo M: Chitin and chitosan: Properties and applications. Andres Y, Giraud L, Gerente C, Le Cloirec P: Antibacterial effects of chitosan flakes: Approach of mechanism and applications to water treatments. doi: Ganjidoust H, Tatsumi K, Wada S, Kawase M: Role of peroxidase and chitosan in removing chlorophenols from aqueous solution.

Water Sci. Siah Lee C, Robinson J, Chonga M F: A review on application of flocculants in wastewater treatment. Process Safety Environ.

Guibal E, Roussy J: Coagulation and flocculation of dye-containing solutions using a biopolymer chitosan. Guibal E, Van Vooren M, Dempsey B A, Roussy J: A review of the use of chitosan for the removal of particulate and dissolved contaminants. No H, Meyers S: Application of chitosan for treatment of wastewaters.

Ware G. Jaafari K, Ruiz T, Elmaleh S, Coma J, Benkhouja K: Simulation of a fixed bed adsorber packed with protonated cross-linked chitosan gel beads to remove nitrate from contaminated water. Pan J R, Huang C P, Chen S C, Chung Y C: Evaluation of a modified chitosan biopolymer for coagulation of colloidal particles.

Colloids Surf. Szyguła A, Guibal E, Palacín MA, Ruiz M, Sastre AM: Removal of an anionic dye Acid Blue 92 by coagulation—flocculation using chitosan. Sye W F, Lu L C, Tai J W, Wang C I: Applications of chitosan beads and porous crab shell powder combined with solid-phase microextraction for detection and the removal of colour from textile wastewater.

Rodrigues A C, Boroski M, Shimada N S, Garcia J C, Nozaki J, Hioka N: Treatment of paper pulp and paper mill wastewater by coagulation—flocculation followed by heterogeneous photocatalysis.

A: Chem.. Renault F, Sancey B, Charles J, Morin-Crini N, Badot P M, Winterton P, Crini G: Chitosan flocculation of cardboard-mill secondary biological wastewater.

Langmuir ; 18 : — Li J, Jiao S, Zhong L, Pan J, Ma Q: Optimizing coagulation and flocculation process for kaolinite suspension with chitosan. A: Physicochem. Aspects ; : — Mohd A, Abu H, Tan Pei L, Zainura Z N: Coagulation and flocculation treatment of wastewater in textile industry using chitosan.

Nechita P, Negreanu V, Axinti AM: Utilisation of bio additives in the adsorption processes of industrial wastewater pollutants.

In Proceedings of The 8th International Symposium on Advanced Technologies For The Pulp, Paper And Corrugated Board Industry; 15—18 September , Braila, Romania, p. Nechita P: Natural additives used in adsorption of pollutants from textile wastewaters.

DOI: Patriche S, Parfene G, Nechita P, Dinică RM, Cârâc G: Adsorption capacity of the chitosan for Zn II ions in aqueous solution and antibacterial activity. Ghinea I O, Cârâc C, Cantaragiu A, Nechita P, Dinică R M, Cârâc G: Adsorption behaviour of the Fe III ions from aqueous solution on chitosan.

Crini G, Badot P M: Application of chitosan, a natural aminopolysaccharide, for dye removal from aqueous solution by adsorption process using batch studies: A review of recent literature. Chiou M S, Ho P Y, Li HY: Adsorption of anionic dyes in acid solutions using chemically cross-linked chitosan beads.

Dyes Pigment ; 60 : 69—84 Gupta A, Chauhan V S, Sankararamakrishnan N: Preparation and evaluation of iron—chitosan composites for removal of As III and As V from arsenic contaminated real life groundwater. Water Res. Vaishnavi Sureshkumar SCG, Kiruba D, Ruckmani K: Fabrication of chitosan—magnetite nanocomposite strip for chromium removal.

Thakre D, Jagtap S, Sakhare N, Labhsetwar N, Meshram S, Rayalu S: Chitosan based mesoporous Ti—Al binary metal oxide supported beads for defluoridation of water.

Moradi Dehaghi S, Rahmanifar B, Mashinchian Moradi A, Aberoomand Azar P: Removal of permethrin pesticide from water by chitosan—zinc oxide nanoparticles composite as an adsorbent.

Hritcu D, Dodi G, Popa M I: Heavy metal ions adsorption on chitosan-magnetite microspheres. Saifuddin N, Dinara S: Pretreatment of palm oil mill effluent POME using magnetic chitosan.

Xie J, Li C, Chi L, Wu D: Chitosan modified zeolite as a versatile adsorbent for the removal of different pollutants from water. It is also obvious that a combination of CS with other techniques seems to be favored rather than the direct application as flocculant [ 21 ].

The addition of CS could significantly lower the amount of coagulant required or enhance floc formation, approved for the flocculation of a model system with clay or bentonite, the conditioning of groundwater or for clarification of pulp and paper mill wastewater [ 21 , 32 , 33 ].

Such a process is exemplary provided for the synergistic action with Fe salts shown in Figure 1. The size relations are not representative. In Figure 1 , ferric chloride is applied as a primary coagulant to destabilize the system, and the so-called perikinetic flocculation due to Brownian motion under vigorous stirring succeedingly occurs.

This results in a formation of smaller flocs. The polyelectrolyte activity initiating a large floc formation orthokinetic flocculation is not only based on one mechanism.

For cationic polymers, such as CS, two main mechanisms can be postulated which occur coincidently: a Bridging by the adsorption of one polymer to adjacent colloids bridging model.

This applies also to polymers bearing the same charge as the colloid. b Reduction of the electronic repulsion between adjacent colloids by electrostatic interaction, adsorption, and charge neutralization of a polymer with opposite charge patch mechanism [ 14 ].

The interaction of the CS with the colloids leads to the formation of flocs having low settling times. The performance of floc formation and turbidity removal is withal dependent from the CS dosage, thereby approving the contribution of the patch mechanism. First, increasing CS dosage fosters turbidity decrease; further CS addition concludes in a contrary effect based on the repulsion of the excess CS adsorbed to the colloids [ 34 ].

The size or molecular weight of the polysaccharide provides a further influencing factor. Investigations revealed a higher efficacy of the turbidity removal with increasing CS molecular weight. This approves that bridging also contributes to the effect, but only in tap water, determining the importance of the ionic strength for the mechanism [ 14 , 35 ].

Guibal et al. stated that the effect of the deacetylation degree was not very significant except at nearly neutral pH values and low ionic strength suspensions. This confirms that a variance analysis with only one independent factor to optimize the flocculation process with CS is not expressive without coincident consideration of other relevant parameters [ 36 ].

Based on the results, CS was approved to be an efficient flocculant auxiliary but needs to be applied at an optimum dosage and as a polymer bearing physical-chemical characteristics suitable for the application.

Furthermore, the performance is greatly influenced by the pH of the reaction medium [ 37 ]. The pH dependency of the CS is linked to the charge density, as confirmed by several authors, providing a double-edged sword [ 38 , 39 ].

The pH of an effluent can scarcely be adapted due to the commonly high volumes of wastewater generated. This applies not only to the application as flocculant but the more for the usage as adsorbent which is highly sensitive for pH changes. In this section, we focus on the adsorption of the mentioned contaminants present in the effluents.

This is especially the case for effluents generated by metal finishing, textile dyeing, or board manufacturing, resulting in wastewaters with high concentrations of toxic heavy metal ions and anionic dyes.

Native and derivatized CS demonstrated to separate both compounds with a high effectivity [ 40 ]. The capacity of the native CS to adsorb dyes or heavy metals ions is in general dependent from various parameters as deacetylation degree, the particle size, the physical state of the CS, the pH value, and the temperature [ 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 ].

According to different studies, deacetylation grade is the most relevant parameter and thus the primary amine groups [ 7 ]. It has to be stated that the total amount is not relevant but the accessible amount of amine groups is, depending on crystallinity and diffusional properties [ 45 ].

Native CS is able to interact with other compounds via free primary alcohol or free primary amine groups depending on the system conditions. In comparison to the application as flocculant, it is widely accepted to modify or combine the CS in order to modulate the stability, rigidity, and viscosity [ 46 ].

Crosslinking as one of the most prominent modification procedures prevents leaching of CS at acidic pH and gives additionally the opportunity to recycle, respectively, reuse, the resin [ 40 ]. Furthermore, modification is carried out to increase sorption capacity as well as selectivity to adsorb specific compounds as can be inferred from Table 2.

There are two general modification processes described here for CS: the linkage to reactive molecules and thus the insertion of functional groups, named as grafting, or the crosslinking reactions to form a dense network of CS chains conferring stability to the resin [ 47 ].

For derivatized CSs, crosslinking method, crosslinking grade, and the kind of derivatization are crucial for the performance.

There are several techniques, covalent and ionic, to crosslink the CS [ 48 ]. A third opportunity besides the crosslinking and grafting is the formation of composites or blends to combine the benefits of CS and other materials or better, to develop synergistic effects [ 40 , 49 ].

Here, the type of compound used and the content greatly alter the functionality and efficiency. Abstract of the current research and results concerning the application of native and derivatized CS in dye and heavy metal removal.

Common to all experiments is that the majority of compounds applied in combination or used to derivatize CS are non-sustainable materials polyacrylamide and epichlorhydrin.

To become the benefits important and to pursue a holistic sustainable approach, materials from renewable resources have to be applied in combination with CS, focusing investigations concerning the removal efficiency with different effluents.

All investigations, summarized in Table 2 , were performed with aqueous solutions spiked with model substances. Studies with model solutions are suitable for an estimation of the prospective potential and application field but cannot substitute the experiments with effluents.

This bases on an activity and stability reduction that has to be expected in a complex matrix. However, results revealed the effective removal of heavy metal ions or dyes from model solutions.

Especially the dye removal based on the polycationic character of CS seems to be promising indicated by the high removal efficiencies. Dyes as adsorbate are usually classified with regard to their charge, succeeding dissolution in water.

There are cationic basic dyes, reactive acidic dyes , and non-ionic dispersed dyes. The adsorption of anionic dyes is a property originally derived by native CS due to the cationic character at low pH values. Electrostatic interactions play thus the major role with regard to the adsorption of the dyes.

The modification of the CS is commonly carried out to improve stability or to extend the adsorbate spectrum. Herrera-González et al.

As an additional feature, the materials provide an increased stability at low pH values [ 40 ]. The compounds to form the composite resins implement new properties resulting in a variety of further interactions between dyes and adsorbent and thus in stronger bonds [ 55 ].

Bond strength between adsorbent and adsorbate can be assessed by thermodynamic measurements. This determines that the enthalpy values are highly dependent on the crosslinking agent and the other compounds the CS is applied with. This is not the case for the Gibbs energy showing low negative values for all investigations and thus exhibiting a spontaneous reaction [ 58 , 59 , 60 ].

Rashid et al. bridged the gap between heavy metal removal and dye adsorption. The separation of both, dyes and heavy metal ions, is the content of several investigations using composites. Hence, the adsorption of heavy metals should be focused using other CS grafts, blends, or composites.

Heavy metal contaminations constitute a severe risk for the environment and also for humans. Not least because they are at the top of the food chain, humans will inevitable uptake and accumulate heavy metals released.

An adsorptive removal directly at the source of formation would thus be advantageous in minimizing exposition potential. Based on many studies, CS provides an adsorbent to accomplish this task. On the other hand, CS does not tightly adsorb alkali and alkaline earth metals according to the HSAB hard soft acid base principle [ 63 ].

Blending lignin and CS provides a sustainable material for the removal of metal ions, whereas not only interpolymeric interactions exist but also synergistic effects to capture the adsorptive.

The authors state several adsorption sites for one adsorptive based on the interactions derived from hydrogen bridge bonds [ 55 ]. All together is that the CS additionally provides a backbone for modifications with functional molecules, improving the chelation of metal ions.

However, the results also indicate that the CS itself significantly contributes to the adsorption of these compounds [ 53 ]. In contrast to that, Negm et al. Summarizing the CS-metal ion equilibrium systems revealed that particularly the Langmuir isotherm was the isotherm of choice to analyze the equilibrium data in over 30 systems since they provided a very good fit to the data.

However, the authors mentioned that there is a lack of comparable results with other isotherms [ 68 ]. Although the detailed mechanism of metal sequestration remains unclear, in general, the removal of metal ions by the action of CS can occur via coprecipitation, chelation, coordination of amine groups as well as ligand exchange or electrostatic interactions with protonated amine groups [ 69 , 70 ].

In contrast to the removal of anionic dyes, it is stated that the adsorption of heavy metal ions decreases due to protonation. A chelation process would be efficient at increased pH values since the adsorption of different metal cations is mainly attributed to the unprotonated amine groups of the CS acting as ligands of the metal ion [ 72 ].

In the year , the bridge model was one of the first trials to propose a coordination geometry emphasizing the relevance of the amine groups for adsorption [ 73 ]. An octahedral coordination geometry coordination number: 6 is formed by the arrangement of axial water molecules see Figure 2a [ 74 ].

However, there are investigations suggesting the C3-hydroxyl group as further ligand for complexation substantiated by thermodynamic data that led to the development of refined models Figure 2b [ 67 ]. The model developed by Ogawa et al.

in the year based on X-ray studies assumes the chelation of different heavy metal cations by one amino group only [ 79 ]. On the other hand, several authors stated that at least a degree of polymerization of four is required to affect an efficient chelation, the consequence being that not only one glucosamine unit is responsible for chelation [ 80 ].

However, the truth probably lies somewhere in between these models based on the dependency of the heavy-metal ion-CS ratio and pH [ 75 ].

Some amine functions may be inaccessible for chelation, and others suffer from steric hindrance to form a regular coordination geometry.

This is based on the fact that CS provides a natural polysaccharide with all its heterogeneities. The desorption of metal cations succeeding the adsorption onto CS is scarcely described in the studies.

The desorption of the metal ions was either performed by the application of ammonium chloride, potassium iodide, or by EDTA [ 81 ]. Shifting pH represents the most suitable method for elution. Oxyanions like chromate or vanadate can be adsorbed by protonated amine groups at lower pH values due to electrostatic interactions resulting in an exothermic reaction [ 67 , 83 ].

The simultaneous recovery of oxyanions and metal cations is described in a further study. In common, protonation reduces the adsorption capacity for metal cations but increases the effectivity of metal anion adsorption.

The authors performing the experiments take advantage of the distribution of deprotonated and protonated amine groups in a pH range of 5—6. The optimum pH removing majority of metal anions by electrostatic attraction is in the range of 2 and 4.

At lower pH values, competitive pressure by other anions derived from the acid for pH adjsutement for binding sites on CS is drastically increasing [ 77 ]. The decreased adsorption capacity of metal anions in the presence of, for example, high chloride, sulfate, or nitrate concentrations is based on the same effect.

A further option to remove toxic oxyanions as selenite or arsenite was provided by Yamani et al. The bimetallic complex connected via oxygen linker offers the separation of both even in the presence of phosphate at high concentrations [ 76 ].

According to this, it was approved that Fe-crosslinked CS enables the adsorption of chromate. Resuming the study and investigation results, CS is a valuable sorbent for dyes and heavy metals.

However, an efficient simultaneous removal of both compound classes with native CS is unlikely due to the pH dependency of both processes. A successful removal can be expected if the solute containing media has a suitable pH for adsorption. CS solubilization can be prevented by crosslinking, functionalization, or blending, additionally resulting in an increased performance of the resin, widening pH range for optimum sorption and creating synergies between the compounds as for CS-functionalized membranes.

The intention is to remove the compounds from the bulk solution to achieve effluents for further processing steps. By way of contrast, membrane-assisted applications are commonly applied to enable the purification or conditioning of water with regard to physical rather than chemical properties.

The composition of the membrane and the quantity of the materials contained are of great importance to provide selectivity for membrane permeation. In common use, membrane materials consist of synthetic polymers and their composites or blends.

Green and sustainable compounds as membrane components are highly demanded for well-known reasons. According to Dobosz et al. Especially CS with its antibacterial activity is thus predestined for the production of membranes sensitive to fouling. Carboxymethyl CS membranes, for example, were applied during a 6-week protein separation process within which no fouling or deterioration in the membrane flux was recorded [ 87 ].

Weng et al. Studies concerning CS-coated polyacrylonitrile hollow fiber membranes approved the antimicrobial and antibiofouling effect in respect to Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria [ 89 , 90 ]. Another aspect to consider is the hydrophilicity of the membranes, which is a major requirement in water-conditioning applications to obtain membrane permeability.

CS provides a high hydrophilicity allowing especially water from aqueous solutions to permeate. Together with a high salt rejection efficiency, this is also the relevant property for the main application fields of CS membranes which can be obtained from Table 3.

An overview of the application fields of chitinous membrane materials and the thereof obtained results. As can be inferred from the table, CS is content of reverse osmosis RO , forward osmosis FO and nanofiltration membranes.

Nanofiltration membranes differ from the other mentioned in the ability to separate particles in the size of 2—5 nm and thus enable permeation of minerals, which would be separated by osmosis membranes. In contrast to FO, RO processes work against the osmotic potential demanding membranes produced to resist high pressure.

Both together have the need for semi-permeable membranes revealing high salt rejection grades and high water permeability, approving high efficiencies at moderate costs. Research and innovation activities concerning the utilization of CS in the three membrane processes are mainly rooted in the countries in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.

Seawater is scarce, whereas saltwater is ubiquitous. Hence, it is not necessary to build high-density networks, which can be produced by utilizing the amine functions of CS as anchor points for modifications. In common, CS is not applied as native but as crosslinked polymer embedded in a matrix or coated on a support layer in order to introduce and combine the advantages of several compounds, or to compensate their weaknesses.

As already mentioned, the hydrophilicity of the membrane is the relevant factor for the water flux commonly determined by measuring the contact angle. CS coating of membranes indicated a significant higher water flux than the native membranes and thus resulted in a decreased pressure and energy demand in the process [ ].

Swelling of CS is one of the properties to be compensated for the adequate application in membrane technology. As swelling is tantamount to a high water content, this greatly affects the water permeability as well as the mechanical strength of the membrane. Investigations revealed that the ability to swell must be controlled to create membranes that enable a selective separation of water and salt whatever, simultaneously guaranteeing a high water flux [ ].

Decreasing the swelling of CS-based membranes means to constrain the movement of the CS chains especially in solvents in which the CS can be solubilized [ ].

Further properties affecting the swelling behavior are the pH of the medium and the resulting electrostatic repulsion of CS chains at low pH values [ ]. Finally, CS seems to be a promising material with regard to the application as a membrane component.

Its antibacterial activity in combination with the functionality of the amine groups provides a suitable tool to prevent fouling and coincidently adapts the network to the substrates to be filtrated.

The challenges to be mastered are the reduction of swelling of these membranes while approving a high water permeability predominantly in drinking water purification.

In addition, further investigations concerning osmosis membranes have to test real saltwater samples not lacking all other natural occurring compounds than sodium chloride as is the case for the synthetic model solutions.

Within this publication, we reviewed the purification of effluents with native and modified CS as well as the application of CS-containing membranes for filtration purposes.

Crosslinking, derivatization, and the production of composites or blends with other natural and synthetic polymers as well as low-molecular weight compounds are the main type of application described in the study rather than the usage of native CS.

It seems to be appropriate to introduce new functionalities, to prevent leaching, or to foster the beneficial properties. Due to these manifold-positive properties in combination with other compounds, the preconditions are favorable for the implementation of CS in wastewater treatment.

The good overall performance adsorbing heavy metal ions and dyes is stated in several investigations, enabling CS to be applied in the treatment of special wastewaters, such as textile and mining effluents. Investigations concerning CS-containing membranes showed that a biopolysaccharide could also contribute to more sophisticated water conditioning processes.

The water permeability and the selectivity have to be evaluated especially considering the swelling behavior. It can be assumed that CS can also be implemented to produce switchable membranes, which means membranes altering the properties due to pH shifts.

However, the investigations concerning the application of CS and its derivatives suffer from several drawbacks not adequately addressed in the past, aggravating the market accessibility 1 cost factors were not considered; 2 experiments limited to lab scale; 3 only batch experiments were carried out; 4 mechanical strength should be increased; 5 studies have to be performed with actual wastewaters; 6 regeneration of the materials was not investigated; 7 swelling behavior of CS needs to be limited, and 8 the heterogeneity of different CS batches is not considered, yet [ 47 , ].

The heterogeneity particularly derives from the origin of the CS, the crab shells being exposed to varying environmental conditions. Not only the CS derived from fishery waste can be applied for wastewater treatment, but also the CS isolated from fungi or insects for the provision of more homogeneous batches.

Since the production of fungal biomass or insect-based protein is already industrially established, a higher quantity and quality of fungal- or insect-based CS can be assumed and could be applied in a prospective effluent purification.

For example, Adnan et al. successfully applied commercial fungal CS to purify a synthetic kaoline solution and palm oil mill effluent. They stated that in contrast to crab shell and shrimp shell CS, the fungal CS is available all over the year.

Further, it has a narrow molecular weight based on the controlled production process, opposing the argument that the heterogeneity of CS limits its application.

The authors assume therefore that prospective works will focus on fungal- and insect-based CS, increasing the opportunity to develop profitable products with improved properties [ ]. Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.

Edited by Rajendra Dongre. Open access peer-reviewed chapter Sewage Polluted Water Treatment via Chitosan: A Review Written By Thomas Hahn and Susanne Zibek. DOWNLOAD FOR FREE Share Cite Cite this chapter There are two ways to cite this chapter:.

Choose citation style Select style Vancouver APA Harvard IEEE MLA Chicago Copy to clipboard Get citation. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation.

IntechOpen Chitin-Chitosan Myriad Functionalities in Science and Technol From the Edited Volume Chitin-Chitosan - Myriad Functionalities in Science and Technology Edited by Rajendra Sukhadeorao Dongre Book Details Order Print. Chapter metrics overview 2, Chapter Downloads View Full Metrics.

Impact of this chapter. Abstract Due to the increasing scarcity of water, wastewater treatment and water conditioning are one of the major future issues.

zibek igb. Introduction There are different kinds of sewages derived from industrial production, agriculture, or directly emerging from the households. Chitosan as coagulating and flocculating agent Water quality is commonly diminished by the presence of colloids or smaller organic substances resulting in a high chemical oxygen demand COD and high turbidity.

Wastewater from Effect Notes Refs. Textile treatment Table 1. Substrate Agents Adsorption characteristics Notes Refs. Table 2. RBBR: Remazol Brilliant Blue R; RB5: Reactive Black 5; RR: Reactive Red. Adsorption of dyes Dyes as adsorbate are usually classified with regard to their charge, succeeding dissolution in water.

Table 3. CS chitosan FO forward osmosis LMH liters per m2 per hour RO reverse osmosis. References 1. Von Sperling M.