Advances in Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness DOMS : Part I: Pathogenesis and Diagnostics. Sportverletz Sportschaden. Harvard Health Publishing. Power Training Provides Special Benefits for Muscles and Function. McKendry J, Pérez-López A, McLeod M, et al.

Short inter-set rest blunts resistance exercise-induced increases in myofibrillar protein synthesis and intracellular signalling in young males. Experimental Physiology.

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Content is reviewed before publication and upon substantial updates. Reviewed by Heather Black, CPT. Learn about our Review Board. Table of Contents View All. Table of Contents. How Periodized Programs Work. Basic Approach to a Golf Weight Training Program. Phase 1: Pre-Season.

Phase 2: Late Pre-Season to In Season. Phase 3: In Season. Phase 4: Off Season. A medical clearance for exercise is always a good idea at the start of the season. We get it, we wish we could be on the course every hour of…. As any golfer knows, your golf clubs are your best companions on the course.

Most of the time that is… Like any loyal sidekick, they deserve care and attention to…. When it comes to improving your golf game, the driving range is your go-to destination for honing those essential skills. A well-structured driving range routine can and will make a…. The sport of golf as we all know is not just a physical game; but a mental one.

That was your wallet breathing a sigh of relief. With a DIY backyard putting…. Looking for golf books to read? Table 1 highlights the rationale involved in implementing macro-, meso-, and microperiodized nutrition recommendations.

Conversely, Figure 1 outlines the process and highlights several periodized nutrition examples, such as the macronutrient CHO and PRO , micronutrient iron , and ergogenic aid creatine examples of macro-, meso-, and microperiodization, respectively.

However, the narrative of this review will exclusively focus on energy and CHO periodization. Citation: International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 29, 2; Energy intake EI is a primary nutritional characteristic as it a establishes the baseline from which intakes of the macronutrients including muscle substrates are derived, b influences the capacity of the diet to achieve micronutrient targets within nutrient-density constraints, and c allows the manipulation of physique via the interaction of training and energy balance.

In addition, some athletes may desire to manipulate their EI in attempts to alter physical and structural characteristics e. Accordingly, energy manipulations should be strategically integrated into the annual plan to minimize the effects on training quality or competition performance, and strategies should aim to maintain sufficient energy availability EA to reduce the acute and chronic issues associated with the development of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport [RED-S; Mountjoy et al.

For a specific review of low EA and RED-S in track and field athletes, the reader is referred to review by Melin et al. To undertake periodization of EI, the nutrition professional and coach need to undertake a full audit of step 3 within Figure 1 of our framework through a nutrition lens.

This assessment should include estimations of total caloric and substrate utilization for each unique type of workout, which then influences the fluctuations or manipulations of energy and macronutrient intake that needs to be integrated into daily eating patterns, as well as an appreciation of these elements over a given training meso and macrocycle.

Many indirect protocols can be implemented to provide information on energy expenditure of exercise EEE and fuel use; these include indirect calorimetry to estimate fuel utilization linked to internal load e.

It should be stressed, however, that accurate measurements of EI Larson-Meyer et al. However, having an understanding of general needs and how they fluctuate can allow the athlete to develop behavioral practices that allow EI to track with EEE e.

The emerging concept of periodization of body composition allows characteristics to be manipulated within an individualized range across different phases of the annual plan according to short- and long-term issues of training adaptation, health, and performance Heydenreich et al.

Further metabolic enhancement can also occur by improving the delivery of nutrients and oxygen to the working muscle, reducing the accumulation of by-products that might disturb cellular homeostasis or metabolic regulation, or improving the efficiency economy of these pathways to produce ATP across a range of absolute and relative exercise intensities.

Carefully organized dietary interventions to enhance the exercise-nutrient interactions can augment the role that training alone already provides. The availability of modern laboratory technologies to investigate cellular signaling events over the past decade has expanded insights into the role of nutritional support in promoting adaptations to exercise.

It is now known that many substrates, and in particular muscle glycogen and plasma free fatty acids, act not only as fuels for the exercise bout being undertaken, but also as regulators of the cellular and whole body adaptation to exercise, and specifically endurance exercise Hansen et al.

In relation to this, the reader is directed to a recent review in which a range of acute and chronically applied strategies to manipulate fat and CHO availability are defined and explained, at least in relation to endurance events, to address some confusion over terminology, application, and theoretical basis Burke et al.

With this approach, total daily CHO intake and its distribution over the day can be modified day-by-day and meal-by-meal i. Therefore, the achievement of high CHO availability defined as CHO stores available to provide the substrate needs of an event or training session is a key goal of competition nutrition and the reader is directed to reviews of the individualized competition needs across events in track and field Burke et al.

In addition to promoting training quality, undertaking sessions with high CHO availability can enhance the pathways of oxygen-independent glycolysis and CHO oxidation Cox et al.

The landmark studies in the field have typically manipulated preexercise muscle glycogen availability Hansen et al. However, it is now recognized that practical models of CHO periodization must extend beyond just manipulating preexercise muscle glycogen availability.

Accordingly, CHO availability is defined as the sum of the current individual endogenous i. According to this definition, it is possible to have insufficient CHO availability even if exercise is commenced with high preexercise muscle glycogen stores if an inadequate dose of exogenous CHO is consumed during prolonged exercise to sustain the desired intensity Coyle et al.

Alternatively, it is possible to commence exercise with reduced muscle glycogen, but can still be considered to have sufficient CHO availability if the exogenous CHO consumed during exercise permits the completion of the desired training intensity and duration Widrick et al.

In the mitochondria, PGC-1α coactivates Tfam to coordinate regulation of mitochondrial DNA and induces expression of key mitochondrial proteins of the electron transport chain, for example, COX subunits.

Similar to PGC-1α, p53 also translocates to the mitochondria to modulate Tfam activity and mitochondrial DNA expression and to the nucleus where it functions to increase expression of proteins involved in mitochondrial fission and fusion Drp-1 and Mfn-2 and electron transport chain protein proteins.

The various main approaches to manipulating CHO availability in relation to training are presented in Table 2. Essentially, it is now recognized that manipulation of both endogenous and exogenous CHO availability before Hansen et al. These modalities may more naturally lend themselves to train-low sessions given the nonweight-bearing activity and lower eccentric loading compared with running.

Second, the CHO requirements of the typical training sessions undertaken by elite track and field athletes are not well known and practitioners must use theoretical knowledge of glycogen utilization from relevant laboratory and field-based studies to organize appropriate manipulation of training and diet.

Of particular note to track and field athletes are the negative effects of reduced CHO and energy availability on markers of bone turnover Sale et al. Although this needs to be confirmed in a longitudinal model, prolonged periods of training with reduced CHO availability may potentially increase the risk for stress fractures, in runners who are already at risk for RED-S and stress fractures Heikura et al.

Indeed, low CHO availability may mediate disturbed reproductive function in its own right Loucks, , creating another pathway to explain the increase in musculoskeletal injuries seen with low EA Rauh et al. Similarly, reduced CHO availability during training may lead to increased susceptibility to illness owing to the role of CHO in modulating postexercise immune responses Costa et al.

Indeed, Impey et al. Overview of Practical Approaches to Manipulate Endogenous and Exogenous CHO Availability Within CHO Periodization Strategies. For a summary of the terminology and rationale of different strategies of periodized fuel support for training and competition, see Burke et al.

and competitive goals e. An illustration of the implementation of periodized CHO availability in the real world was provided by a week case study of three elite marathon runners Stellingwerff, These athletes undertook a weekly average of 2.

However, during the subsequent 4-week period which focused on competition preparation, nutritional strategies shifted toward an increased frequency of practicing CHO fueling during training sessions 2. Rather, careful day-to-day periodization is likely to maintain metabolic flexibility and still allow the completion of high-intensity and prolonged duration workloads on heavy training days.

Intuitively, train-low may be best left to those training sessions that are not as CHO dependent and where the intensity and duration is not likely to be compromised by reduced CHO availability e.

As with all nutritional strategies, application of CHO periodization should only be done in conjunction with appropriately qualified nutrition professionals and be continually refined and optimized. Although endurance-trained athletes have an enhanced capacity for fat oxidation compared with untrained, this adaptation is clearly not maximized from training alone as it can be doubled, or even tripled, by chronic adaptation to a LCHF diet Burke et al.

However, studies have shown that as little as 5 days of exposure to HFLC diets, while continuing to undertake both high volume and intensity of training, achieves a robust retooling of the muscle to increase intramuscular triglycerides stores, and enhance the mobilization, transport, uptake, and oxidation of fats for review see Burke, By itself, however, chronic adaptation to a NK-LCHF does not translate into clear improvements in endurance performance, except in specific scenarios or individuals Burke, Therefore, a microperiodization protocol which theoretically could sequentially enhance the capacity of both fat- and CHO-based fuel oxidation prior to an endurance event has been proposed; this involves a 5—6 days fat adaptation phase followed by acute restoration of CHO availability just prior to and during the endurance task Burke et al.

Investigation of this protocol showed that the muscle retooling achieved by the fat-adaptation phase is robust in continuing to promote higher rates of fat oxidation in the face of aggressive strategies to restore high CHO availability during the endurance task Burke et al. Despite substantially reduced rates of muscle glycogen utilization during the early part of the exercise task, there was no clear enhancement of a subsequent time trial in any of these studies.

One apparent explanation for this outcome is that, rather than sparing glycogen utilization, chronic exposure to a high-fat diet causes an impairment of CHO oxidation during exercise due to a reduction on glycogenolysis and a downregulation of the activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex [PDH; Stellingwerff et al.

Data from rodent models suggests that such inhibition of PDH activity may actually be due to the effects of reduced muscle glycogen availability.

Indeed, commencing exercise with reduced muscle glycogen augments the activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-δ PPAR-δ; Philp et al. In human muscle, however, we have recently shown that the downregulation of CHO metabolism appears to be a consequence of the high-fat diet and increased fat availability rather than CHO restriction alone Leckey et al.

The consequences of reduced CHO utilization within the tricarboxylic acid cycle are likely to manifest in a reduced capacity for ATP production at high intensities. The proposed benefits of chronic adaptation to ketogenic LCHF diets has also received recent attention in both the lay Brukner, and the scientific press Noakes et al.

However, Phinney et al. already noted that this feat was achieved in the face of impairments of capacity to undertake exercise at higher intensities. A more recent investigation of 3. In this study, some of the highest rates for fat oxidation ever reported in the literature were achieved following adaptation to the K-LCHF diet, under conditions of either fasting or intake of fat during a prolonged exercise protocol.

However, this was associated with an increase in the oxygen cost i. Taken together, chronic LCHF interventions have been shown to a decrease CHO oxidation Burke et al. This would decrease the effectiveness of CHO feeding strategies, thus increasing the risk of gut disturbances Jeukendrup, b.

It is important that coaches and athletes understand the metabolic demands and limiting factors in their events Figure 1 , and trial-specific interventions on an individual level Figure 3 , and realize that all sustained majority of track and field events are exceptionally CHO dependent.

The numerous various events in athletics, all with unique bioenergetics, biomechanical, and structural performance determinants, lend themselves to endless permutations of potential periodized nutrition interventions.

Therefore, this review took a holistic approach to develop a nutrition periodization framework to guide practitioners in the field across these nutrition periodization options, while grounding them in targeted intervention first principles Figure 1 and Table 1.

From this framework, the literature has been examined regarding macro-, meso-, and microperiodization of CHO availability, and consequently, fat periodization Table 2 and Figure 2 , with considerations and recommendations to individualize and test in the field, as required Figure 3.

However, Figure 1 highlights various other nutrition examples of periodization that are beyond the scope of this review, but we would highlight a few other papers in this series that also feature periodized nutrition examples for protein Witard et al. With an appreciation of the complexities of training periodization, future directions in this field should include better quantification of knowledge and application of existing periodized approaches in elite athletes, as well as systematically controlled CHO periodization approaches over prolonged training blocks in larger cohorts of athletes.

In summary, the field of periodized nutrition has made considerable gains over the last decade, but is ripe for further progress. Akerstrom , T. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 3 , — PubMed ID: doi Areta , J.

Skeletal muscle glycogen content at rest and during endurance exercise in humans: A meta-analysis. Sports Medicine. Advance online publication. Bartlett , J. Reduced carbohydrate availability enhances exercise-induced p53 signaling in human skeletal muscle: Implications for mitochondrial biogenesis.

American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 6 , — Brukner , P. Can elite athletes eat LCHF and win? Burke , L. Fueling strategies to optimize performance: Training high or training low? Sports Medicine, 45 Suppl.

Adaptations to short-term high-fat diet persist during exercise despite high carbohydrate availability. Commentary: Towards a universal understanding of diet-exercise strategies to manipulate fuel availability for training support and competition preparation in endurance sport.

International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 28 5 , — Contemporary nutrition strategies to optimize performance in distance runners and race walkers. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism Low carbohydrate, high fat diet impairs exercise economy and negates the performance benefit from intensified training in elite race walkers.

The Journal of Physiology, 9 , — Carey , A. Effects of fat adaptation and carbohydrate restoration on prolonged endurance exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 91 1 , — Costa , R. The effects of a high carbohydrate diet on cortisol and salivary immunoglobulin A s-IgA during a period of increase exercise workload amongst Olympic and Ironman triathletes.

International Journal of Sports Medicine, 26 10 , — Nutrition for ultramarathon running: Trail, track, and road. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, Gut-training: The impact of two weeks repetitive gut-challenge during exercise on gastrointestinal status, glucose availability, fuel kinetics, and running performance.

Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 42 5 , — Cox , G. Daily training with high carbohydrate availability increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during endurance cycling.

Journal of Applied Physiology, 1 , — Coyle , E. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate.

Journal of Applied Physiology, 61 1 , — De Bock , K. Effect of training in the fasted state on metabolic responses during exercise with carbohydrate intake. Journal of Applied Physiology, 4 , — Hansen , A. Skeletal muscle adaptation: Training twice every second day vs.

training once daily. Journal of Applied Physiology, 98 1 , 93 — Havemann , L. Fat adaptation followed by carbohydrate loading compromises high-intensity sprint performance. Hawley , J. Carbohydrate dependence during prolonged, intense endurance exercise.

Hearris , M. Regulation of muscle glycogen metabolism during exercise: Implications for endurance performance and training adaptations. Nutrients, 10 3 , E

Emphasis is on building functional strength and some muscle bulk hypertrophy. Players are working up to the start of the season.

Emphasis is on building maximum power. Competition or regular recreational golf is underway and you expect to be in peak condition. Maintenance of strength and power is emphasized. Time to relax for a while but you need to keep active if you want to get a flying start for next year.

During this time a break from serious strength training is often helpful. As pre-season approaches, more regular gym work can resume. Physically, golf requires a mix of aerobic fitness and strength. You don't want to fade in the last few holes in a round because you feel tired, which impacts mental as well as physical performance.

While this program is for strength training, you should prepare well for the long days on the fairway with additional aerobic conditioning.

Practice rounds might be enough for some players but additional cardio on the road or in the gym could work to your advantage. Professional golfers like Gary Player, Greg Norman, and Tiger Woods have made strength training respectable, if not essential, for maximizing achievement in the sport.

However, amateur and recreational golfers can also benefit from strength training. This is a four-phase weight training program that should suit most golfers. The first phase concentrates on building basic strength and muscle.

In the second phase, you'll focus on power delivery. If you play all year round you can just continue with the power program once you build your basics. If you take a break for longer than a month, start again with the strength program.

Consider this program an all-around program that is best suited to beginners or casual weight trainers without a history of weight training. The best programs are specific to an individual's current fitness level, goals, and access to resources and coaches.

If you're new to weight training, brush up on principles and practices with the beginner resources before you get started. During this phase, you will build strength and muscle. The emphasis is on lifting moderately heavy weights in order to train the nervous system in conjunction with the muscle fibers to move bigger loads.

Hypertrophy, which is building muscle size, does not necessarily imply strength, although in this foundation phase some muscle-building will serve you well for strength development.

Strength will be the foundation for the next phase, which is power development. Power is the ability to move the heaviest loads in the shortest time. Power is essentially a product of strength and speed. For golf, power could mean a better tee shot, more control on those tricky approaches, or length on the big par five holes.

Time of year: Mid pre-season Duration: weeks Days per week: , with at least one day between sessions Reps: Sets: Phase 1 Exercises:. Points to Note:. In this phase, you build on the strength developed in phase 1 with training that will increase your ability to move a load at high velocity.

Power is combining strength and speed. Power training requires that you lift weights at high velocity and with explosive intent. You need to rest adequately between repetitions and sets so that each movement is done as fast as possible. The number of sets can be less than in phase 1.

There is no point in training like this when you're fatigued. Time of year: Late pre-season and in-season Duration: Ongoing Days per week: 2 Reps: 8 to 10 Sets: Rest between repetitions: 10 to 15 seconds Rest between sets: At least 1 minute or until recovery.

Phase 2 Exercises:. Alternate phase 1 Strength and Muscle and phase 2 Power for a total of two sessions each week. Every fifth week, skip weight training to assist recovery. If you have an off-season, it's the time to rest up.

You need this time for emotional and physical renewal. For several weeks, you can forget about golf and focus on other things. That said, it's a good idea to stay fit and active with cross training or other activities you enjoy.

Give yourself plenty of time to rest and get ready to do it all again next year. Evans JW. Periodized Resistance Training for Enhancing Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy and Strength: A Mini-Review.

Front Physiol. National Academy of Sports Medicine. Hypertrophy: Back to The Basics. Hotfiel T, Freiwald J, Hoppe MW, et al. Advances in Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness DOMS : Part I: Pathogenesis and Diagnostics.

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