Bacteria-free environment -
All authors approved the final manuscript. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grants No. NSF IOS, NSF IOS, and the John Templeton Foundation grant The funders had no role in study design, data collection and interpretation, or the decision to submit the work for publication.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Many thanks to William E. Winston for creating the GIS location map of our experimental site.
Abby, S. Identification of protein secretion systems in bacterial genomes. doi: PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Alcock, J. Is eating behavior manipulated by the gastrointestinal microbiota? evolutionary pressures and potential mechanisms. Bioessays 36, — Alibaud, L.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence genes identified in a Dictyostelium host model. Benavides-Montaño, J. Yersinia pestis resists predation by Acanthamoeba castellanii and exhibits prolonged intracellular survival. Bingle, L. Type VI secretion: a beginner's guide.
Bonner, J. Evidence for gas-induced orientation in the cellular slime molds. Bozzaro, S. The professional phagocyte Dictyostelium discoideum as a model host for bacterial pathogens.
Drug Targets 12, — Brock, D. Sentinel cells, symbiotic bacteria and toxin resistance in the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum.
Primitive agriculture in a social amoeba. Nature , — Which phenotypic traits of Dictyostelium discoideum farmers are conferred by their bacterial symbionts?
Symbiosis 68, 39— CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Social amoeba farmers carry defensive symbionts to protect and privatize their crops.
Cascales, E. The versatile bacterial type IV secretion systems. Cavender, J. The Acrasieae in nature. Forest soil as a primary habitat. occurrence and distribution in forests of eastern North America. Chen, G. Immune-like phagocyte activity in the social amoeba. Science , — Chow, J.
A pathobiont of the microbiota balances host colonization and intestinal inflammation. Cell Host Microbe 7, — Cirillo, J. Interaction of Mycobacterium avium with environmental amoebae enhances virulence.
PubMed Abstract Google Scholar. Clarke, M. Phagocyte meets prey: uptake, internalization, and killing of bacteria by Dictyostelium amoebae. Cell Biol. Cosson, P. Eat, kill or die: when amoeba meets bacteria. DiSalvo, S. Burkholderia bacteria infectiously induce the proto-farming symbiosis of Dictyostelium amoebae and food bacteria.
Douglas, T. Collection and cultivation of dictyostelids from the wild. Fierer, N. Embracing the unknown: disentangling the complexities of the soil microbiome.
Gilbert, O. High relatedness maintains multicellular cooperation in a social amoeba by controlling cheater mutants. Gilbert, S. A symbiotic view of life: we have never been individuals. Gong, J. Protist-bacteria associations: Gammaproteobacteria and Alphaproteobacteria are prevalent as digestion-resistant bacteria in ciliated protozoa.
Gotelli, N. Google Scholar. Green, E. Bacterial secretion systems—an overview. Hagedorn, M. Infection by tubercular mycobacteria is spread by nonlytic ejection from their amoeba hosts.
Hasselbring, B. Dictyostelium discoideum as a model system for identification of Burkholderia pseudomallei virulence factors.
Jani, A. Type VI secretion: not just for pathogenesis anymore. Cell Host Microbe 8, 2—6. Janssen, P. Identifying the dominant soil bacterial taxa in libraries of 16S rRNA and 16S rRNA genes.
Jia, K. Autophagy genes protect against Salmonella typhimurium infection and mediate insulin signaling-regulated pathogen resistance. Kearse, M. Geneious basic: an integrated and extendable desktop software platform for the organization and analysis of sequence data.
Bioinformatics 28, — Kessin, R. Dictyostelium - evolution, cell biology, and the development of multicellularity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ ersity Press. Landolt, J. Cellular slime molds in forest soils of southwestern Virginia. Mycologia 78, — Lareen, A. Plant root-microbe communication in shaping root microbiomes.
Plant Mol. Letunic, I. Interactive Tree Of Life iTOL : an online tool for phylogenetic tree display and annotation.
Bioinformatics 23, — McFall-Ngai, M. Animals in a bacterial world, a new imperative for the life sciences. Molmeret, M. Amoebae as training grounds for intracellular bacterial pathogens. Moran, N. Symbiosis and insect diversification: an ancient symbiont of sap-feeding insects from the bacterial phylum Bacteroidetes.
Nasser, W. Bacterial discrimination by dictyostelid amoebae reveals the complexity of ancient interspecies interactions. Parsons, D. sciS, an icmF homolog in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, limits intracellular replication and decreases virulence.
Preacher, K. Calculation for the chi-square test: An Interactive Calculation Tool for Chi-Square Tests of Goodness of Fit and Independence [Computer software]. Pucciarelli, S. Microbial consortium associated with the antarctic marine ciliate Euplotes focardii.
Raper, K. Growth and development of Dictyostelium discoideum with different bacterial associates. The Dictyostelids. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. The growth of Dictyostelium discoideum on pathogenic bacteria. Reddick, L. Bacteria fighting back: how pathogens target and subvert the host innate immune system.
Cell 54, — Ribet, D. How bacterial pathogens colonize their hosts and invade deeper tissues. Microbes Infect. Rosenberg, E. Microbes drive evolution of animals and plants: the hologenome concept.
MBio 7:e—e Sansonetti, P. Debugging how bacteria manipulate the immune response. Immunity 26, — Scheid, P. Relevance of free-living amoebae as hosts for phylogenetically diverse microorganisms.
Schloss, P. Introducing DOTUR, a computer program for defining operational taxonomic units and estimating species richness. Introducing mothur: open-source, platform-independent, community-supported software for describing and comparing microbial communities.
Solomon, J. Intracellular growth of Legionella pneumophila in Dictyostelium discoideum , a system for genetic analysis of host-pathogen interactions. Stallforth, P. A bacterial symbiont is converted from an inedible producer of beneficial molecules into food by a single mutation in the gaca gene.
Stephenson, S. Vertebrates as vectors of cellular slime molds in temperate forests. Strassmann, J. Ancient bacteria—amoeba relationships and pathogenic animal bacteria. PLoS Biol. Tamura, K. MEGA6: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis version 6.
Taylor-Mulneix, D. Bordetella bronchiseptica exploits the complex life cycle of Dictyostelium discoideum as an amplifying transmission vector. Keywords: Dictyostelium , bacteria, microbiome, symbiosis, amoebae, sociality, persistence, predation. Citation: Brock DA, Haselkorn TS, Garcia JR, Bashir U, Douglas TE, Galloway J, Brodie F, Queller DC and Strassmann JE Diversity of Free-Living Environmental Bacteria and Their Interactions With a Bactivorous Amoeba.
Received: 01 August ; Accepted: 05 November ; Published: 23 November Copyright © Brock, Haselkorn, Garcia, Bashir, Douglas, Galloway, Brodie, Queller and Strassmann. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author s and the copyright owner s are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice.
No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Brock, dbrock wustl. Amoebae as Host Models to Study the Interaction with Pathogens.
Open supplemental data Export citation EndNote Reference Manager Simple TEXT file BibTex. Check for updates. ORIGINAL RESEARCH article. Diversity of Free-Living Environmental Bacteria and Their Interactions With a Bactivorous Amoeba Debra A. Haselkorn 1 Justine R. Garcia 1 Usman Bashir 1 Tracy E.
Douglas 1 Jesse Galloway 2 Fisher Brodie 2 David C. Queller 1 Joan E. Strassmann 1. Introduction Eukaryotes evolved in the context of a world already fully populated by bacteria and archaea McFall-Ngai et al. Materials and Methods Deer Feces and Soil Collection We collected samples of feces from white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus and of soil on 23 and 30 July from mixed deciduous forests at Mountain Lake Biological Station, Virginia x PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar.
x CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Keywords: Dictyostelium , bacteria, microbiome, symbiosis, amoebae, sociality, persistence, predation Citation: Brock DA, Haselkorn TS, Garcia JR, Bashir U, Douglas TE, Galloway J, Brodie F, Queller DC and Strassmann JE Diversity of Free-Living Environmental Bacteria and Their Interactions With a Bactivorous Amoeba.
Edited by: Sascha Thewes , Freie Universität Berlin, Germany. Reviewed by: Frank C. Gibson III , University of Florida, United States Eric D. Cambronne , University of Texas at Austin, United States Pauline Schaap , University of Dundee, United Kingdom.
Contamination can occur from: Human and animal waste Use of antibiotics and antifungals as pesticides on plants or crops Pharmaceutical manufacturing waste Scientific evidence from a report called Initiatives for Addressing Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment [PDF — 94 pages] show that traces of antibiotics and antifungals, germs resistant to them, and genes that cause resistance traits are present and can spread in waterways and soils.
Print Version. COVID Impacts Antimicrobial Resistance Much of the U. Animal Waste Antibiotics and antifungals are sometimes given to food animals to treat, control, and prevent diseases.
Pesticides Various diseases can infect plants and crops e. Aquaculture Antibiotics and antifungals are used worldwide in aquaculture the farming of fish and seafood to control disease.
Drinking Water Safe water is water that is clean to drink, accessible when needed, and free from germs and chemicals. AMR Exchange Webinar. Understanding AMR in Water. Healthcare Facilities. Your Community. Food Supply. Around the World. Page last reviewed: March 2, Content source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases NCEZID , Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion DHQP.
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Everyone has probably done it hundreds of times, especially lately — rubbed hands with sanitizer, ehvironment kitchen Ennvironment with Pomegranate Infused Olive Oil environent, patted down a toilet-seat environmment Bacteria-free environment a public restroom Pomegranate Infused Olive Oil used environmen, elbows environmsnt shoulders to try Lentil curry open the bathroom door — all Bscteria-free the name of keeping those nasty, scary, invisible germs away. But what if all of this careful cleaning is an exercise in futility? Is it even possible to keep germs away? Not really, said Emily Sickbert-Bennett, director of the University of North Carolina UNC Medical Center's Infection Prevention program and associate professor of epidemiology and infectious diseases at the UNC School of Medicine. Related: Are viruses alive? There are lots of bacteria that naturally occur all over, in water and soil and on other animals, she added. But these microbes aren't all bad, she said. Human Isotonic drink market can Bacteria-dree the Bacteria-free environment envionment, soil Pomegranate Infused Olive Oil antibiotics and antifungals, which Bacteria-free environment speed up the development and spread of resistance. Contamination can occur from:. Scientific evidence from Bacteri-afree report called Initiatives for Addressing Antimicrobial Resistance envlronment the Environment [PDF — 94 pages] show that traces of antibiotics and antifungals, germs resistant to them, and genes that cause resistance traits are present and can spread in waterways and soils. However, scientists do not fully understand the risk of resistance in the environment on human health. Measuring the relationship between resistant germs and genes, drug residues small amounts of leftover drugs or pieces of drugs that are not completely absorbed by the bodythe environment, and human health is complex and incomplete.Bacteria-free environment -
How long can bacteria live on a doorknob? Are any bacteria visible to the naked eye? Why does salt have antibacterial properties? Luis trained as a zoologist, but now works as a science and technology educator. Much of the U.
progress in combating antimicrobial resistance was lost in , in large part, due to the effects of the COVID pandemic. The pandemic pushed healthcare facilities, health departments, and communities near their breaking points. Find out more about the impact of COVID on antimicrobial resistance in the U.
Globally, most human waste is discharged directly into the environment without treatment. This includes open defecation and discarding untreated waste into waterways. Advancements in sanitation systems and improving antibiotic and antifungal use will help slow the development of resistance.
Antibiotics and antifungals are sometimes given to food animals to treat, control, and prevent diseases. Like human waste, manure from food-producing animals treated with antibiotics and antifungals can carry drug residues and resistant germs.
This could contaminate the surrounding soil and nearby water sources. Animal waste is often used as fertilizer on agricultural lands to help with plant growth.
While more research is needed, using untreated or un-composted animal manure that contains residues or resistant germs as fertilizer can contribute to the development and spread of resistant germs through the environment.
Various diseases can infect plants and crops e. These diseases can be difficult to control and extremely damaging because they can impact farm income and the food supply.
Antibiotics and antifungals fungicides are sometimes applied as pesticides to manage plant and crop diseases. However, using antibiotics and fungicides in agriculture can contribute to resistance in the environment by contaminating soil and water. For example, stormwater and irrigation water from farmland can contaminate nearby bodies of water with resistant germs and antibiotic or antifungal residues.
This contamination can affect human health when the pesticides are the same as, or closely related to, antibiotics and antifungals used in human medicine. For example, triazoles are the most widely used fungicides on plants and crops, but are also similar to important human antifungal medicines used to prevent or treat fungal infections caused by germs like Aspergillus fumigatus.
Patients with azole-resistant A. Use of triazole fungicides in the environment increased more than four times from to in the U. Appropriate use of azoles in human medicine and agriculture can help combat resistance.
Antibiotics and antifungals are used worldwide in aquaculture the farming of fish and seafood to control disease. Using antibiotics and antifungals in aquaculture can contaminate the local aquatic environment with these drugs and residues. We have previously established that some wild D.
discoideum known as farmers facultatively associate with certain bacteria, that these bacteria are located inside spores, and that they can be vertically transmitted to the next generation Brock et al.
In this study we found several bacteria genera were able to persist through multiple social cycle rounds suggesting wherever these bacteria are located they are able to be transmitted to the next generation in some fashion. However, spot test percentages were lower in the persistence assay than we have previously shown with symbiotic Burkholderia sp.
discoideum DiSalvo et al. Where bacteria from this survey are located within the D. discoideum fruiting bodies will need to be determined by future research, but it seems likely that at least a portion of them could be persisting inside the spores.
Non-digestion persistence of bacteria in hosts can be aided by manipulation of the host immune response, and bacteria have developed an arsenal of diverse mechanisms to do this Sansonetti and Di Santo, ; Ribet and Cossart, Secretion systems are commonly used by bacteria to secrete effectors into a host cell after engulfment Green and Mecsas, These secreted effectors facilitate escape of the bacteria from the phagosome or block phagosome fusion to the lysosome preventing bacterial cell death thereby creating a new niche in the host.
Proteobacteria are particularly rich in secretion systems T1SS, T2SS, T3SS, T4SS, T5aSS, T5bSS, T5cSS, and T6SS having more different types of secretion systems than all other phyla Abby et al.
The majority of bacteria we isolated in total were in the Alpha, Beta, and Gamma classes of Proteobacteria and this was also true of the type bacteria that persisted through multiple social rounds of growth.
A similar abundance of Proteobacteria classes was found among digestion-resistant bacteria in surveys of marine and fresh water ciliates, another group of unicellular eukaryotes Pucciarelli et al. Gong et al. Both type IV and VI secretion systems transport proteins and effector molecules into eukaryotic cells and have been implicated in suppressing immunity and exporting virulence factors Cascales and Christie, ; Bingle et al.
Type VI secretion systems have also been shown to have non-pathogenic roles mediating symbiotic relationships between bacteria and eukaryotes as well Parsons and Heffron, ; Chow and Mazmanian, ; Jani and Cotter, However, Proteobacteria are often abundant in forest soil Janssen, , so we are not certain how over-represented they might be in our samples.
Secretion systems are also one of the mechanisms bacteria use to secrete effectors that directly target components of the innate immune system such as Toll-like receptors and Nod-like receptors Reddick and Alto, When multicellular, D. discoideum contain a cell type known as sentinel cells that provides immune-like and detoxification functions Chen et al.
Additionally, Chen et al. We have previously shown that wild D. discoideum farmers have fewer sentinel cells compared to D. discoideum with no associated bacteria suggesting a relaxed immune response promoting symbiotic interactions through a reduction in the clearance of carried bacteria Brock et al.
The bacteria we found associated in the sori of wild D. discoideum fruiting bodies may be persisting through a similar mechanism. Amoebae are proposed as reservoir hosts for pathogenic bacteria Molmeret et al.
In support, Benavides-Montaño and Vadyvaloo recently reported Yersinia pestis can survive in Acanthamoeba castellanii amoebae for prolonged periods by using the type three secretion system to inhibit phagocytosis Benavides-Montaño and Vadyvaloo, Bacteria can increase in virulence even after short associations with eukaryotes leading to environmental and health consequences.
One example reports enhanced virulence of Mycobacterium avium in macrophage and mouse models after growth in A. castellanii Cirillo et al. Another recent example describes increased dispersal ability and amplified virulence of Bordetella bronchiseptica after growth in D. discoideum along with macrophage and mouse models Taylor-Mulneix et al.
Digestion of bacteria by amoebae should occur quickly after engulfment Clarke and Maddera, However, our ability to isolate culturable bacteria from wild fruiting body spore masses formed after starvation suggests the possibility of some level of persistence and host manipulation. The vast range of eukaryote-bacteria interactions can affect development, immunity, and evolution Rosenberg and Zilber-Rosenberg, Based on the data presented here, we find a more multifaceted relationship between D.
This system will provide an excellent platform to discover if bacteria persistence in wild D. discoideum amoebae can initiate either increased infectivity in other hosts or, alternatively, symbiosis.
Our study shows that the range of bacterial associates, whether pathogenic, symbiotic, or haphazard, is much larger than has been appreciated. The bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequences from this study have been deposited in the Genbank numbers are MK—MK DB, DQ, and JS designed the experiments. FB and JG mapped and collected the samples.
DB, UB, and TD performed the experiments. DB, JRG, TH, DQ, and JS analyzed the results and wrote the manuscript.
All authors approved the final manuscript. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grants No.
NSF IOS, NSF IOS, and the John Templeton Foundation grant The funders had no role in study design, data collection and interpretation, or the decision to submit the work for publication.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Many thanks to William E. Winston for creating the GIS location map of our experimental site. Abby, S. Identification of protein secretion systems in bacterial genomes. doi: PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Alcock, J.
Is eating behavior manipulated by the gastrointestinal microbiota? evolutionary pressures and potential mechanisms. Bioessays 36, — Alibaud, L. Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence genes identified in a Dictyostelium host model. Benavides-Montaño, J. Yersinia pestis resists predation by Acanthamoeba castellanii and exhibits prolonged intracellular survival.
Bingle, L. Type VI secretion: a beginner's guide. Bonner, J. Evidence for gas-induced orientation in the cellular slime molds.
Bozzaro, S. The professional phagocyte Dictyostelium discoideum as a model host for bacterial pathogens. Drug Targets 12, — Brock, D. Sentinel cells, symbiotic bacteria and toxin resistance in the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum. Primitive agriculture in a social amoeba.
Nature , — Which phenotypic traits of Dictyostelium discoideum farmers are conferred by their bacterial symbionts? Symbiosis 68, 39— CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Social amoeba farmers carry defensive symbionts to protect and privatize their crops. Cascales, E. The versatile bacterial type IV secretion systems.
Cavender, J. The Acrasieae in nature. Forest soil as a primary habitat. occurrence and distribution in forests of eastern North America. Chen, G. Immune-like phagocyte activity in the social amoeba. Science , — Chow, J. A pathobiont of the microbiota balances host colonization and intestinal inflammation.
Cell Host Microbe 7, — Cirillo, J. Interaction of Mycobacterium avium with environmental amoebae enhances virulence. PubMed Abstract Google Scholar.
Clarke, M. Phagocyte meets prey: uptake, internalization, and killing of bacteria by Dictyostelium amoebae. Cell Biol. Cosson, P. Eat, kill or die: when amoeba meets bacteria. DiSalvo, S. Burkholderia bacteria infectiously induce the proto-farming symbiosis of Dictyostelium amoebae and food bacteria.
Douglas, T. Collection and cultivation of dictyostelids from the wild. Fierer, N. Embracing the unknown: disentangling the complexities of the soil microbiome. Gilbert, O.
High relatedness maintains multicellular cooperation in a social amoeba by controlling cheater mutants. Gilbert, S. A symbiotic view of life: we have never been individuals. Gong, J. Protist-bacteria associations: Gammaproteobacteria and Alphaproteobacteria are prevalent as digestion-resistant bacteria in ciliated protozoa.
Gotelli, N. Google Scholar. Green, E. Bacterial secretion systems—an overview. Hagedorn, M. Infection by tubercular mycobacteria is spread by nonlytic ejection from their amoeba hosts. Hasselbring, B. Dictyostelium discoideum as a model system for identification of Burkholderia pseudomallei virulence factors.
Jani, A. Type VI secretion: not just for pathogenesis anymore. Cell Host Microbe 8, 2—6. Janssen, P. Identifying the dominant soil bacterial taxa in libraries of 16S rRNA and 16S rRNA genes. Jia, K. Autophagy genes protect against Salmonella typhimurium infection and mediate insulin signaling-regulated pathogen resistance.
Kearse, M. Geneious basic: an integrated and extendable desktop software platform for the organization and analysis of sequence data. Bioinformatics 28, — Kessin, R. Dictyostelium - evolution, cell biology, and the development of multicellularity.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ ersity Press. Landolt, J. Cellular slime molds in forest soils of southwestern Virginia. Mycologia 78, — Lareen, A. Plant root-microbe communication in shaping root microbiomes.
Plant Mol. Letunic, I. Interactive Tree Of Life iTOL : an online tool for phylogenetic tree display and annotation. Bioinformatics 23, — McFall-Ngai, M. Animals in a bacterial world, a new imperative for the life sciences. Molmeret, M. Amoebae as training grounds for intracellular bacterial pathogens.
Moran, N. Symbiosis and insect diversification: an ancient symbiont of sap-feeding insects from the bacterial phylum Bacteroidetes. Nasser, W. Bacterial discrimination by dictyostelid amoebae reveals the complexity of ancient interspecies interactions.
Parsons, D. sciS, an icmF homolog in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, limits intracellular replication and decreases virulence. Preacher, K. Calculation for the chi-square test: An Interactive Calculation Tool for Chi-Square Tests of Goodness of Fit and Independence [Computer software].
Pucciarelli, S. Microbial consortium associated with the antarctic marine ciliate Euplotes focardii. Raper, K. Growth and development of Dictyostelium discoideum with different bacterial associates. The Dictyostelids. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
The growth of Dictyostelium discoideum on pathogenic bacteria. Reddick, L. Bacteria fighting back: how pathogens target and subvert the host innate immune system. Cell 54, — Ribet, D.
How bacterial pathogens colonize their hosts and invade deeper tissues. Microbes Infect. Rosenberg, E. Microbes drive evolution of animals and plants: the hologenome concept. MBio 7:e—e Sansonetti, P. Debugging how bacteria manipulate the immune response. Immunity 26, —
Axenic Menstrual health prevention are produced by Bacteria-freee rederivation, and Bacteria-fred be maintained in isolators under environmenr strict handling procedures to keep Pomegranate Infused Olive Oil germ-free. JAX does Bacteria-free environment distribute axenic Envkronment, and many institutions are Bcteria-free set up to environmeht them Pomegranate Infused Olive Oil the rigorous conditions that are necessary to maintain Bacteria-free environment. BMR and exercise are axenic mice that have been intentionally inoculated with a cocktail of one or more non-pathogenic microorganisms, all of which are known. The demand for both axenic and gnotobiotic mice has been growing due to the increasing awareness that the gut microbiome can significantly affect the progression of metabolic disorders such as diabetes and autoimmune diseases such as lupus, inflammatory bowel disease and arthritis. Regarding the enteric flora of JAX Mice, we have a pretty good handle on the aerobic organisms that inhabit the guts of our mice — mainly Enterococcus, Lactobacillus and Staphylococcus xylosus — but the anaerobic flora of our mice are not well characterized.
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