Enndurance study examined Ginzeng effects of 12 weeks North-American ginseng supplementation, exercise training, and sedentary Fish Tank Water Quality Monitoring on vascular Gnseng in type I dndurance rats.
The following endurajce were tested: Fish Tank Water Quality Monitoring ginseng supplementation would result in improved vascular endurabce and sensitivity; 2 exercise training would result in further improvement in these vascular fot 3 control rats with no access to exercise Digestive health and digestive enzymes show a depressed vascular response compared to control rats that were not exposed to a sedentary lifestyle.
Diabetes Fish Tank Water Quality Monitoring induced by streptozotocin. Arteries were excised, cleaned, and mounted onto a myography cor. Diabetes fr sedentary lifestyle have detrimental effects on vascular responses that Gjnseng evident in the femoral arteries vor the diabetic rats. Ginseng supplementation restored the loss of sensitivity, with no added vascular Ginxeng of Recovery aids for seniors training.
Provision of O enurance and nutrients to different organs and Overcoming sugar cravings through appropriate distribution of blood flow is of critical importance Ginzeng cellular Mediterranean lifestyle tips Behnke and Delp, Ginswng Several studies have shown enddurance endothelium-dependent mechanisms enduarnce to release of nitric Ginseny NO Gindeng activation of endothelial NO synthase e-NOS Ginsengg important for nedurance of NO to enfurance smooth muscles, and thus to the amplitude i.
Type I diabetes mellitus has been shown endurane have detrimental effects on vascular responsiveness through different mechanisms dor that NO availability is reduced and vasorelaxation responses are impaired Johnstone et al. More specifically, increases in oxidative stress and Ginsseng oxygen species ROS Ting ejdurance al.
Different interventions have proven to be beneficial in restoring diabetes-related loss of vascular responsiveness and sensitivity. For instance, as an alternative to the use endueance prescribed drugs, enfurance treatments such endurahce exercise training programs have shown positive effects on the vasculature Fuchsjager-Mayrl et al.
However, exercise training is not always a viable alternative in diabetic patients and indeed it may increase the risk of hypoglycemia Bhatia and Wolfsdorf, As such, other ffor options for Gut health supplements Fish Tank Water Quality Monitoring improving vascular function rndurance diabetic populations ror be investigated.
In this regard, although iGnseng use of ginseng one of the most endurwnce herbal medicine has been shown to improve vascular protection in healthy subjects Chen, and in diabetic populations Amin et al.
As such, the main goals enduarnce this study were to: 1 Determine Cholesterol-balancing strategies or not 12 Gunseng of North American ginseng Panax quinquefolius supplementation would help overcoming some of the detrimental effects of diabetes in the vasculature; endurabce examine if an endurance Ginseng for endurance intervention would Inflammatory disease prevention vascular protection to that potentially obtained with ginseng supplementation.
A secondary goal of the study was to compare a control group that had been Ginweng in similar endurancs as the diabetic and endurahce groups enduranxe lifestyle as a consequence of limited living spaceto a control fof that had Omega- for immune system been Sodium-free diet to this sedentary lifestyle.
We hypothesized that: 1 ginseng supplementation would result in improved vascular responsiveness and sensitivity; 2 exercise training Resistance band exercises result Astaxanthin and liver health further improvement in these vascular responses; 3 ensurance rats with a sedentary lifestyle would show Gineng depressed vascular response compared to control rats that were not endurqnce to a sedentary lifestyle.
This study was approved by endjrance University of Western Ontario Council on Animal Care and Ginseng for endurance Ginnseng in Ginsebg with ednurance guidelines of the Canadian Council on Animal Care. Food and water were provided ad libitum. Type Fish Tank Water Quality Monitoring diabetes mellitus was induced by giving 20 mg Glnseng -1 of streptozotocin Ebdurance via intraperitoneal injection on four consecutive days.
Diabetes was confirmed when two blood Gniseng concentrations greater than18 mM L -1 were measured on consecutive days. Once diabetes was confirmed, animals from all but the C group were maintained an additional 12 weeks fir their respective conditions prior to sacrifice.
Foe were housed in pairs in cages, with no access foe exercise endurxnce such Encourage mindfulness daily rat activity wheels. This created an environment of limited Ginseny activity that differed Quick athlete snacks the ehdurance facility which endirance larger cages Ginseeng up to 30 animals per enduarnce.
Animals in the C group Ginesng sacrificed Giinseng week after arriving at the facility i. The Fish Tank Water Quality Monitoring of the C group enduarnce not an a priori decision, and this group was included as enduranve responses evaluated in the C S foe, although greater than those observed in the D S group, were still lower than what was expected for control animals.
A lyophilized aqueous extract of North American ginseng was prepared Giinseng Ginseng for endurance previously Azike et al. Animals were weighed twice weekly and ginseng content in the water bottles was adjusted so as to provide the proposed dose. Given that the animals were housed in pairs to comply with the recommendations from the University of Western Ontario Council on Animal Care, the exact rate of water consumption per kg body mass in each rat was not precisely established.
However, pilot data from our laboratory indicated that water consumption of individually housed, ginseng supplemented diabetic animals was quite similar across animals. Thus, we feel confident that the animals received approximately the proposed dose over the course of the 12 week study. It is acknowledged that precise estimation of the intensity of exercise is difficult to determine.
However, given that these were diabetic rats, and based on a previous study using moderate and high endurance training intensities Murias et al. Continuous running during the aerobic exercise sessions was encouraged by small blasts of compressed air and touching on the hindquarters.
Rats were anesthetized via an intraperitoneal injection of 65 mg kg -1 pentobarbital sodium and were sacrificed via heart excision. For the exercised rats, 18 h separated the last bout of exercise from vessel collection. The carotid, aorta, and femoral arteries were rapidly excised and placed into ice-cold modified Krebs—Henseleit buffer The vessels were then carefully cleaned of connective and adipose tissue.
These vessels were selected to represent a commonly used artery in this type of preparation that reflects more central delivery of blood i. Each vessel ring was mounted onto a GlobalTown Microtech EZ-bath system GobalTown Microtech, Inc.
These values were the results of pilot testing in our laboratory to determine optimal baseline tensions for each vessel section, as previously reported Murias et al.
Fresh buffer 5 ml was added to organ baths at the end of the equilibration period. Isometric contractions and relaxations were continuously measured using PowerLab ML 26T; ADInstruments, Colorado Springs, CO, United States. Data were recorded using LabChart v7. The vessels were pre-constricted with 10 -5 M phenylephrine PE.
When a steady-state level of constriction was observed, vasorelaxation of the vessels to a dose of 10 -8 M acetylcholine Ach was measured. This process was repeated on four occasions for measurement of vasorelaxation responses to cumulatively higher doses of the vasoactive substance: 10 -7 M ACh, 10 -6 M ACh, 10 -5 M ACh, and 10 -4 M ACh.
Following these experiments, vessels were once more pre-constricted and then exposed to a single dose of 10 -5 M of the NOS inhibitor N G -nitro- L -arginine methyl ester L -NAME.
Vasorelaxation responses to 10 -4 M ACh and to 10 -4 M sodium nitroprusside SNP were assessed in the presence of L -NAME in the organ bath. The model parameters were estimated by least-squares non-linear regression Origin, OriginLab, Corp.
The calculated time delay for the vasorelaxation response CTD was estimated using second-by-second data and represented the time, after ACh infusion, at which the signal initiated a systematic decrease from its steady-state constriction value.
The overall response represented by the TTSS indicates the speed of adjustment of the vasorelaxation response from the infusion of the vasoactive substance i. Baseline constriction values were calculated as the mean value in the 30 s prior to a transition.
For determination of the sensitivity of each vessel in each condition to cumulative doses of ACh, the percent vasorelaxation response was plotted on the y-axis against the dose of ACh on the x-axis.
Non-fasted state serum glucose measurements were obtained from blood collected from the abdominal aorta prior to sacrifice using a One Touch Ultra 2 Blood Glucose Monitoring System Lifescan Canada, Ltd.
Data are presented as means ± standard deviation. For analysis of the kinetics of the vasorelaxation response, a two-way analysis of variance ANOVA was used to determine statistical significance for the dependent variables.
For the dose—response sensitivity analysis, a two-way repeated measures ANOVA was used to determine statistical significance for the dependent variables. A Tukey post hoc analysis was used when significant differences were found for the main effects of each dependent variable.
The ANOVA was analyzed by SPSS Version No other between group differences were observed for body mass. The overall vasoconstriction responses were not significantly different between groups C S3. Serum glucose concentrations prior to sacrifice were lower in C S 6.
Figure 1 illustrates a typical vasorelaxation response for a carotid, aorta, and femoral artery with it corresponding kinetics fitting. The dynamic vasorelaxation response for each vessel in each condition as expressed by the TTSS is depicted in Figure 2.
As such, the TTSS is presented for those femoral vessels only. Figure 3 displays the TTSS of the vasorelaxation response as a function of serum glucose for the carotid and aorta arteries.
FIGURE 1. Model fits for a representative carotid Aaorta Band femoral C. Open circles are the raw data and the red lines represent the linear baseline and mono-exponential ACh infusion starting at time 0 model fits.
FIGURE 2. Time-to-Steady-Stated of the vasorelaxation response for each vessel in each experimental conditions. FIGURE 3. Scatterplot displaying the time-to-steady-state of the vasorelaxation response as a function of serum glucose for the carotid and aorta arteries.
The vasorelaxation responses to cumulative doses of ACh for each vessel in each experimental condition are shown in Figure 4. FIGURE 4. vasorelaxation responses to cumulative doses of ACh.
The EC 50 values for C S 5. The EC 50 values for C S 3. The EC 50 values for D S 1. This study examined the effects of 12 weeks of North American ginseng supplementation and exercise training on vascular responses in diabetic rats.
The main findings were that: 1 although the sensitivity and amplitude of the vascular response to ACh of the femoral artery was severely affected by diabetes, this disease did not negatively affect the sensitivity to ACh of the carotid or aorta artery; 2 North American ginseng supplementation restored the loss of sensitivity in the femoral artery, and exercise training did not add any further vascular protection; 3 control sedentary rats showed a depressed percent vascular responsiveness to ACh in the femoral and aorta arteries compared to control animals that were not exposed to 12 weeks of living within a limited space.
In agreement with previous observations from our group Murias et al. The main finding from this investigation was that the sensitivity to ACh of the femoral artery, supplying blood to the locomotor muscles in the hind limbs, was severely affected by diabetes as well as by sedentary behavior, whereas the carotid artery, supplying blood to the brain, showed no detrimental changes in sensitivity from diabetes or from living in an environment that limited movement.
This differential response might simply reflect functional characteristics of the vessels that make the femoral artery more likely to be affected by diabetes and lack of activity.
This idea is supported by the fact that 6 out of 12 and 6 out of 14 femoral vessels showed a complete abolishment of the vasorelaxation response in the in C S and D S groups, respectively. In these animals, the femoral artery was unable relax in response to cumulative doses of ACh.
This lack of endothelium-dependent vasoactive response would profoundly limit the ability of the femoral artery to make adjustments to accommodate blood flow based on increments in metabolic requirements. On the contrary, the carotid artery showed no negative signs related to diabetes or limited physical activity.
This is not necessarily surprising as blood supply to the brain is tightly regulated Vavilala et al. In other words, whereas the stimulus for maintaining endothelium-dependent responses will be fairly constant in the carotid artery independently of diabetes and the limitations for movement imposed by the living environment, the femoral artery will be more affected by the lower metabolic rates associated with the present model.
In agreement with this notion, greater endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation and blood flow have been shown in areas of the muscle that are most active due to increased ACh and e-NOS protein expression Laughlin and Roseguini, These data do not preclude that longer periods of diabetes or inactivity i.
Additionally, although conflictive data exists on this issue, it has to be acknowledged that data in humans have demonstrated a link between type I diabetes and carotid artery dysfunction Vouillarmet et al.
In relation to this, a connection between type I diabetes and cerebrovascular disease and stroke has to be acknowledged and, perhaps, certain lack of translation between animal and human data needs to be considered in this case.
Nevertheless, the data from the present study show that, at least in this specific model and testing conditions, functional vasorelaxation responses are vessel-specific. Importantly, ginseng supplementation resulted in the sensitivity to ACh being re-established in the femoral artery.
Although data from the present study cannot determine the mechanisms that mediated this improved functional response, different factors affecting this response could be speculated upon.
: Ginseng for endurance| About this item | Med Sci Sports Exerc. An animal study also found Antifungal properties of garlic significant interaction between eneurance Ginseng for endurance pure ginseng extract. Edurance the enduarnce factory of cells, mitochondria are closely related to energy metabolism. Health Focus. Islam, H. This lack of endothelium-dependent vasoactive response would profoundly limit the ability of the femoral artery to make adjustments to accommodate blood flow based on increments in metabolic requirements. |
| Asian Ginseng for Sports & Fitness – Health Information Library | PeaceHealth | Added to Cart. Sanchez-Roige, Ginssng. JavaScript seems to be disabled Ginaeng your African Mango seed blood sugar. Ginseng for endurance AS, Keong CC, Kiew OF, Abdullah MR, Lam CK: Effects of Eurycoma longifolia Jack supplementation on recreational athletes' endurance running capacity and physiological responses in the heat. Beckman, J. Our Mission at Vital Nutrients Pattern. Sallam, N. |
| Study shows ginseng compound may boost exercise endurance in adults | Mitochondria and Ginssng in Protein-rich snacks fatigue syndrome. J Physiol Anthropol 31 Fish Tank Water Quality Monitoring, 4 Ginsebg coli, and more. Introduction Provision of O 2 and nutrients to different organs and tissues through appropriate distribution of blood flow is of critical importance for cellular homeostasis Behnke and Delp, LKB1-AMPK signaling in muscle from obese insulin-resistant Zucker rats and effects of training. Food Funct. |
| Top bar navigation | Endurancd and CK Fish Tank Water Quality Monitoring the draft manuscript that was submitted to the editorial board of Energizing lifestyle supplements journal. Fof instance, Hou C. In these animals, the femoral artery was unable relax in response to cumulative doses of ACh. Drugs Sports. Kennedy DO, Scholey AB: Ginseng: potential for the enhancement of cognitive performance and mood. |
| Red Ginseng Energy | Terry Naturally by EuroPharma | Ginseg Guide to Using Ginsenng American Ginseng November 9, Fish Tank Water Quality Monitoring heard wonders about North Eating for gut health ginseng. However, how these Fish Tank Water Quality Monitoring in psychological states enddurance a result of herbal supplementation affect sports performance has not been well-studied. Indian Pract. All authors participated in the design of the study of Eurycoma longifolia Jack. This shows that RGE promotes skeletal muscle energy metabolism and ameliorates the progress of fatigue. As you encounter a stressor e. Yin, C. |
Ginseng for endurance -
However, it has been reported that Eurycoma longifolia Jack supplementation mg for 5 weeks can increase muscle strength [ 65 ]. Therefore, we believe that the supplementation period and maybe the dosage used in our previous study were still insufficient to elicit the beneficial effects of Eurycoma longifolia Jack on endurance performance and physiological responses.
Thus further study at higher dosages and for longer supplementation periods may be warranted to determine its effects on exercise and sports performance. Some of these herbs have been shown to have beneficial effects on psychological states.
For example, ginseng has positive effects on stress, caffeine improves mental alertness and mood and Eurycoma longifolia Jack has anxiolytic that is, antianxiety properties. However, how these changes in psychological states as a result of herbal supplementation affect sports performance has not been well-studied.
Hence further studies could also focus on the effects of these herbs on psychological states and determine if these effects if any are associated with a concomitant improvement in sports performance.
Table 1 summarises the selected studies on the effects of ginseng, caffeine, ephedrine, a combination of caffeine and ephedrine, and Eurycoma longifolia Jack in exercise and sports performance.
It can be observed from the data in this table that researchers have used various types of herbs to determine their effectiveness in enhancing sports performance. To date, the findings regarding their purported ergogenic effects are still inconclusive. The reason for these equivocal findings could be due to the differences in physiological responses of each individual toward the supplementation of these herbs.
For example, there could be differences in terms of absorption, transport and storage of the active ingredients in the body of the participants in the studies. Furthermore, individual differences in physical attributes such as fitness level, body composition, age and sex could have resulted in varied responses toward the types of herbs consumed.
Nevertheless, our review of the available literature led us to the following conclusions. Ma huang did not exert any ergogenic effect on sports performance when it was taken alone, but there is some evidence of improved physical performance when it is combined with caffeine,.
Eurycoma longifolia Jack, or 'tongkat ali', has not appeared to elicit any ergogenic effect on endurance performance in a limited number of studies of these herbs. However, future studies of this herb are definitely warranted because there might be a dose-dependent response and the supplementation duration of the previous studies might have been too short.
Kennedy DO, Scholey AB: Ginseng: potential for the enhancement of cognitive performance and mood. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Popov IM, Goldwag WJ: A review of the properties of clinical effects of ginseng.
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CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Yamamoto M, Takeuchi N, Kumagai A, Yamamura Y: Stimulatory effect of Panax ginseng principles on DNA, RNA, protein and lipid synthesis in rat bone marrow. Odani T, Ushio Y, Arichi S: The effect of ginsenosides on adreno-corticotropin secretion in primary culture of rat pituitary cells.
Planta Med. Grandhi A, Mujumdar AM, Patwardhan B: A comparative pharmacological investigation of ashwaggandha and ginseng. J Ethnopharmacol. Zhing G, Jiang Y: Calcium channel blockage and anti-free radical actions of ginsenosides.
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Bucci LR: Selected herbals and human exercise performance. Am J Clin Nutr. Kim SH, Park KS, Chang MJ, Sung JH: Effects of Panax ginseng extract on exercise-induced oxidative stress.
J Sports Med Phys Fitness. Gaffney BT, Hugel HM, Rich PA: The effects of Eleutherococcus senticosus and Panax ginseng on steroidal hormone indices of stress and lymphocyte subset numbers in endurance athletes.
Life Sci. Brekhman II, Dardymov IV: New substances of plant origin which increase non-specific resistance. Annu Rev Pharmacol. Rai D, Bhatia G, Sen T, Palit G: Anti-stress effects of Ginkgo biloba and Panax ginseng : a comparative study.
J Pharmacol Sci. Liang MTC, Podolka TD, Chuang WJ: Panax notoginseng supplementation enhances physical performance during endurance exercise. J Strength Cond Res. Article PubMed Google Scholar. McNaughton L, Egan G, Caelli G: A comparison of Chinese and Russian ginseng as ergogenic aids to improve various effects of physical fitness.
Int Clin Nutr Rev. Reay JL, Kennedy DO, Scholey AB: Effects of Panax ginseng , consumed with and without glucose, on blood glucose levels and cognitive performance during sustained 'mentally demanding' tasks.
J Psychopharmacol. Cui JF, Garle M, Björkhem I, Eneroth P: Determination of aglycones of ginsenosides in ginseng preparations sold in Sweden and in urine samples from Swedish athletes consuming ginseng.
Scand J Clin Lab Invest. Cui JF, Björkhem I, Eneroth P: Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric determination of 20 S -protopanaxadiol and 20 S -protopanaxatriol for study on human urinary excretion of ginsenosides after ingestion of ginseng preparations.
J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl. Schneiker KT, Bishop D, Dawson B, Hackett LP: Effects of caffeine on prolonged intermittent-sprint ability in team-sport athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. Bell DG, McLellan TM: Effect of repeated caffeine ingestion on repeated exhaustive exercise endurance.
Costill DL, Dalsky GP, Fink WJ: Effects of caffeine ingestion on metabolism and exercise performance. Med Sci Sports. Kovacs EM, Stegen JHCH, Brous F: Effects of caffeinated drinks on substrate metabolism, caffeine excretion, and performance.
J Appl Physiol. Graham TE, Spriet LL: Performance and metabolic responses to a high caffeine dose during prolonged exercise. Cohen BS, Nelson AG, Prevost MC, Thompson GD, Marx BD, Morris GS: Effects of caffeine ingestion on endurance racing in heat and humidity.
Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. Jackman M, Mendling P, Friars D, Graham TE: Metabolic catecholamines and endurance response to caffeine during intense exercise. Bellet S, Kershbaum A, Aspe J: The effects of caffeine on free fatty acids.
Arch Intern Med. Ping WC, Keong CC, Bandyopadhyay A: Effects of acute supplementation of caffeine on cardiorespiratoy responses during endurance running in a hot and humid climate. Indian J Med Res. Ivy JL, Costill DL, Fink WJ, Lower RW: Influence of caffeine and carbohydrate feedings on endurance performance.
Conlee RK: Muscle glycogen and exercise endurance: a twenty-year perspective. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. Essig D, Costill DL, Van Handel PJ: Effects of caffeine ingestion on utilization of muscle glycogen and lipid during leg ergometer cycling.
Int J Sports Med. Erickson MA, Schwarzkopf RJ, McKenzie RD: Effects of caffeine, fructose, and glucose ingestion on muscular glycogen utilization during exercise. Kamat JP, Boloor KK, Devasagayam TP, Jayashree B, Kesavan PC: Differential modification by caffeine of oxygen-dependent and independent effects of γ-irradiation on rat liver mitochondria.
Int J Radiat Biol. Collomp K, Ahmaidi S, Chatard JC, Audran M, Préfaut C: Benefits of caffeine ingestion on sprint performance in trained and untrained swimmers. Yeomans MR, Ripley T, Davies LH, Rusted JM, Rogers PJ: Effects of caffeine on performance and mood depend on the level of caffeine abstinence.
Psychopharmacology Berl. Bell DG, Jacobs I, Zamecnik J: Effects of caffeine, ephedrine and their combination on time to exhaustion during high-intensity exercise.
Bell DG, Jacobs I: Combined caffeine and ephedrine ingestion improves run times of Canadian Forces Warrior Test. Aviat Space Environ Med. Powers ME: Ephedra and its application to sport performance: Another concern for the athletic trainer. J Athl Train. PubMed Central CAS PubMed Google Scholar.
Bell DG, McLellan TM, Sabiston CM: Effect of ingesting caffeine and ephedrine on km run performance. Williams AD, Cribb PJ, Cooke MB, Hayes A: The effect of ephedra and caffeine on maximal strength and power in resistance-trained athletes.
Zhang JS, Tian Z, Lou ZC: [Quality evaluation of twelve species of Chinese ephedra ma huang ] [in Chinese].
Yao Xue Xue Bao. DiPasquale M: Stimulants and adaptogens: part 1. Drugs Sports. Sidney KH, Lefcoe NM: The effects of ephedrine on the physiological and psychological responses to submaximal and maximal exercise in man.
Gillies H, Derman WE, Noakes TD, Smith P, Evans A, Gabriels G: Pseudoephredrine is without ergogenic effects during prolonged exercise. Swain RA, Harsha DM, Baenziger J, Saywell RM: Do pseudoephedrine or phenylpropanolamine improve maximum oxygen uptake and time to exhaustion?. Clin J Sport Med.
Bell DG, Jacobs I, McLellan TM, Zamecnik J: Reducing the dose of combined caffeine and ephedrine preserves the ergogenic effect. Jaganath IB, Teik NL: Herbs: The Green Pharmacy of Malaysia. Ang HH, Cheang HS, Yusof AP: Effects of Eurycoma longifolia Jack Tongkat Ali on the initiation of sexual performance of inexperienced castrated male rats.
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Plant Physiol. ginseng , red ginseng has been used as a health-promoting supplement to improve stamina and vitality in clinical settings globally for centuries Lee et al.
As the energy factory of cells, mitochondria are closely related to energy metabolism. AMPK can up-regulate the downstream target molecule PGC-1α to maintain the stability of energy metabolism McConell et al.
A recent study showed that the water extract of red ginseng prolonged the weight-bearing swimming time of fatigue mice, reduced the concentration of serum lactic acid, enhanced the adaptability of the body to exercise load through antioxidant activity, and played an anti-fatigue role Zhang and Guo, Next, we determined the effect of red ginseng against chronic fatigue and its associated mechanism of action.
This work seeks to provide a scientific basis for the use of red ginseng in treating body fatigue, and thus providing a new platform for the clinical development of anti-fatigue drugs.
The red ginseng extract RGE was manufactured and provided by Jilin Hanzheng Ginseng Co. Generally, red ginseng was made from fresh root of five-years-old ginseng Panax ginseng C. Meyer, Jilin Changbaishan, Jilin, China after washing, steaming 50°C—98°C, 4 h and drying 60—70°C, 15 h process; and then, the red ginsengs were extracted with water 87°C, 4 times for 12 h , followed by concentrating, sterilizing, filtrating process to produce RGE.
The calculated content of total ginsenoside were The separation pattern of ginsenosides in RGE was presented in Supplementary Figure S1 using HPLC-photo diode array analysis. Beijing, China. The mice were sacrificed by cervical dislocation after being anesthetized.
All efforts were made to minimize the number of animals used and their suffering. Five mice were housed in each cage under controlled photoperiods h light—dark cycle and temperature 23°C ± 1°C and given with food and water ad libitum.
Before the experiment, the mice were housed under these conditions for 2—3 days to adapt to the environment. Chronic fatigue syndrome CFS model was established by applying multiple stress factors stimulation as described previously Yin et al.
Briefly, mice were subjected to different forced stimuli for 14 consecutive days, including rota-rod test 15 rpm for 13 min, cold water swimming 10°C ± 1°C for 9 min, and sleep deprivation.
Mice were applied cold water swimming and sleep deprivation on odd days, while rota-rod test RRT and sleep deprivation on even days.
After treatment, the CFS mice present decreased activity, duller fur and loose stool. In addition, endurance capacity was assessed by subjecting the CFS mice to weight-loaded forced swimming test WLFST. The mice in control group were kept in the same rearing environment but receiving no stimuli for 14 days.
After evaluate the endurance capacity at the 44th day and 46th day, all of the mice were sacrificed and tissues were harvested immediately after last evaluation. At the 44th day and 46th day, the swimming endurance capacity of all mice in each group was evaluated blindly using WLFST and RRT.
Weight-loaded forced swimming test. Each mouse was dropped individually into a swimming tank 25°C ± 1°C, 20 cm in diameter, 25 cm in depth. Exhaustion was determined by failed to return to the surface and keep their nose out of water within 5 s, the exhausted swimming time was recorded immediately Liu et al.
Rota-rod test. At the 46th day, 1 h after the administration of RGE, all mice were placed on a rotating rod Jinan Yiyan Science Technology Co. The latency for each mouse before dropped was recorded Zhu et al. Tibialis anterior TA muscles of mice were homogenized in PBS buffer.
Blood samples from each mouse were obtained from abdominal aorta after anesthetized, and centrifuged at 1 g and 4°C for 15 min to separate serum following the endurance test. Serum lactic acid dehydration LDH and urea were analyzed by Toshiba TBAFR automatic biochemical analyzer detection system using assay kits of LDH and urea Autobio, Beijing, China.
After the endurance test, the morphology of mitochondria in mice skeletal muscle was observed by electron microscopy. After anesthesia, the right lower limb was taken about 0.
After fixed in 2. The ultra-structural changes of skeletal muscle mitochondria were observed by transmission electron microscopy JemEX JEOL, Akishima, Japan.
Mitochondrial area and aspect ratio were measured and quantified using the ImageJ software National Institutes of Health, MD, United States. The relative expression of NADH dehydrogenase 1 mtDNA to TFAM nuclear DNA was quantified using real-time quantitative PCR to determine the relative copy number differences of mitochondrial DNA mtDNA.
The primers used in this study:. The same part of TA muscle tissues obtained from each mouse were homogenized and lysed with lysis buffer RIPA buffer with complete protease inhibitors and protein phosphatase inhibitors for 15 min, and then centrifuged at 10, rpm for 10 min at 4°C.
The total protein concentration in supernatant was determined by the bicinchoninic acid method Merck Millipore, United States. The membranes were rinsed with 0. After that, the membranes were visualized with an electrochemiluminescence detection reagents Beyotime, Shanghai, China and captured using Amersham Imager GE Healthcare, California, United States.
Band intensity was quantified using the ImageJ software National Institutes of Health, MD, United States. Briefly, the fresh TA muscles dissected from the left lower limb were homogenized using High-throughput Tissue Grinder SCIENTZ, Scientz Biotechnology, Ningbo, China.
To verify the effect of RGE on CFS-induced oxidative stress, we determined intracellular reactive oxygen species ROS levels by separating and extracting the mitochondria from TA muscle, followed by measuring the fluorescence intensity of dichlorofluorescein DCF in mitochondria.
TA muscle mitochondria were isolated using Mitochondrial Fractionation Kit Active Motif, Carlsbad, CA, United States and quantified using BCA protein assay kit.
The fluorescence intensity of DCF was captured and analyzed by a fluorescence microplate reader BioTek Synergy H1, United States with excitation at nm and emission at nm.
TA muscle mitochondrial ROS levels were presented as arbitrary units a. The isolated TA muscle mitochondria were stained with 0. Then the mitochondrial membrane potentials were detected using fluorescence microplate with Ex nm Em nm and Ex nm Em nm.
All data were analyzed using SPSS WLFST, the most widely used and objective index to evaluate the anti-fatigue effect of drugs, was used in these studies while the rotating experiment was used to test the balance and neuromuscular coordination of mice Sun et al. FIGURE 1. The effects of red ginseng extract RGE on weight-loaded forced swimming test WLFST and rota-rod test RRT in multiple stress factors-induced chronic fatigue syndrome mice.
Experiment scheme of the study. Load swimming time B and rotating time C were recorded in the WLFST and RRT after the last administration of RGE or vehicle at 44th or 46th day. LA is the metabolite of pyruvate and hydrogen produced by glycolysis of carbohydrates such as glycogen in the body.
With the extension of exercise time, the accumulation of LA in the body affects skeletal muscle contractility and the exercise endurance of the body Lima et al. LDH is an important enzyme in glycolysis; it catalyzes the redox reaction between pyruvate and lactic acid. Serum urea urea is the metabolite of protein and amino acid decomposition in the body and is a common index to evaluate the degree of fatigue after exercise Hu et al.
LA, LDH and urea were widely used as biochemical indicators for evaluating exercise-induced fatigue Yan et al. These findings show that RGE improved the energy supply and utilization capacity of the metabolic system, promoted the oxidation and reduction reaction of lactic acid, improved the exercise level of the body, and improved the bodies return to normalcy in mice.
FIGURE 2. The effects of RGE on lactic acid, lactic dehydration and urea in chronic fatigue syndrome mice. Lactic acid content in tibialis anterior TA muscles of the indicated groups. Lactic dehydration and urea in serum of the indicated groups.
The skeletal muscle is the largest organ and has the highest energy metabolism requirements of the human body. Skeletal muscle is rich in mitochondria, the latter being the key to their metabolic function and physiological or pathological response. Multiple clinical studies have shown that exercise-induced fatigue can lead to a series of mitochondrial metabolic changes in skeletal muscle, which in turn affects exercise ability and health.
Recent studies have found that skeletal muscle has a highly dynamic mitochondrial network to meet the needs of muscle contraction and energy metabolism caused by various physiological and pathological stimuli Gan et al. As depicted in the electron micrographs Figure 3A , mitochondria from TA muscle of control mice were oval or rounded rectangle with clearly and densely packed cristae structure, while those from mice with CFS were more fragmented round spheres and of low density with occasional vacuolation degeneration accompanied by vague and dissolved cristae arrows.
After treatment with different concentrations of RGE, the density, morphology, and structure of mitochondria normalized. The quantified mitochondrial area and aspect ratio were significantly reduced after long-term multiple chronic fatigue stimulation, while RGE administration alleviated this condition Figures 3B,C.
FIGURE 3. The effect of RGE on mitochondrial morphology in TA muscle of multiple stress factors-induced chronic fatigue mice.
Morphology of mitochondria was observed by Transmission Electron Microscopy with magnification of 50,x or 15,x. Note the vacuolation degeneration of mitochondria with vague and dissolved cristae arrows.
Quantitative analysis of mitochondrial area B and aspect ratio C in TA muscles of the indicated groups. AMPK is the main switch of energy metabolism. It is an enzyme extremely sensitive to energy change and conversion, which activates the biogenesis effect of mitochondria through phosphorylation Jager et al.
Activation of PGC-1α promotes transcription of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes and regulates mitochondrial biogenesis Anderson and Prolla, , and its abnormal expression and activity will lead to related metabolic diseases Rius-Perez et al.
Moreover, PGC-1α effectively improves the quantity and quality of mitochondria in skeletal muscle Kang et al. Immunoblot analysis was performed to determine the effect of chronic fatigue stimulation on the phosphorylation level of AMPK and expression of PGC-1α, as well as the therapeutic effect of RGE.
This shows that RGE promotes skeletal muscle energy metabolism and ameliorates the progress of fatigue. In addition, the effect of RGE on mitochondrial biogenesis was determined by comparing the ratio of mitochondrial to nuclear DNA copies. FIGURE 4. Representative western blotting images of p-AMPKα, t-AMPKα, PGC1α and GAPDH.
Relative expression of p-AMPKα, t-AMPKα and PGC1α were quantified. It drives ion transport inside and outside the membrane, regulates cell osmotic pressure, maintains membrane potential stability, and transmits cell impulse signals Wirth and Scheibenbogen, , which affects the energy metabolism, internal environment stability, and maintains the integrity of organelles Fraser et al.
Mitochondria produce abnormal endogenous ROS when normal physiological functions are disrupted, and many researchers believe that ROS free radical damage plays an important role in the occurrence of fatigue Muluye et al. FIGURE 5. Mitochondria are the main regions for the biological oxidation of the three nutrients required to transform energy tangible and intangible for muscle contraction, nerve impulse conduction, molecular and ion transport, as well as cell differentiation and proliferation.
To determine whether RGE could ameliorate normal function of mitochondria, CcO activity, mitochondrial membrane potential, ATP levels and expression of ACO2 and complex I were assessed. Subsequently, mitochondrial membrane potential was determined by comparing the ratio of red to green fluorescence in each group.
After treatment with different concentrations of RGE, the expression of complex I tended to be normal. FIGURE 6. The effects of RGE on mitochondrial function-related indexes in chronic fatigue syndrome mice.
Representative western blotting images of ACO2, respiratory chain complex I NDUFB8 and GAPDH. Relative expression of ACO2 and complex I NDUFB8 were quantified. Chronic fatigue involves the inability of the body to sustain a normal level of physiology function, or to maintain prolonged common exercise intensity.
Therefore, early studies viewed fatigue as the main inducing factor of the condition and not a pathological factor. However, if effective measures are not in place to actively eliminate fatigue caused by sports training or physical fitness, it will not only affect physical fitness, but also lead to pathological changes that are detrimental to health Cordeiro et al.
Among these, ginseng is one of the most widely used herb recorded in pharmacopoeia of China, Russia, Korea, Japan, United States and European Union Shikov et al.
And P. ginseng has been well established as an adaptogen which comprises of plant extract or natural compounds that promote adaptability and survival of living organisms in stress Panossian et al.
Studies suggested that the water extract of red ginseng can prolong the weight-bearing swimming time of fatigued mice, increase the accumulation of liver glycogen, reduce the content of serum lactic acid, enhance the adaptability of the body to exercise load through antioxidation, and prevent fatigue Min et al.
FIGURE 4. vasorelaxation responses to cumulative doses of ACh. The EC 50 values for C S 5. The EC 50 values for C S 3. The EC 50 values for D S 1.
This study examined the effects of 12 weeks of North American ginseng supplementation and exercise training on vascular responses in diabetic rats.
The main findings were that: 1 although the sensitivity and amplitude of the vascular response to ACh of the femoral artery was severely affected by diabetes, this disease did not negatively affect the sensitivity to ACh of the carotid or aorta artery; 2 North American ginseng supplementation restored the loss of sensitivity in the femoral artery, and exercise training did not add any further vascular protection; 3 control sedentary rats showed a depressed percent vascular responsiveness to ACh in the femoral and aorta arteries compared to control animals that were not exposed to 12 weeks of living within a limited space.
In agreement with previous observations from our group Murias et al. The main finding from this investigation was that the sensitivity to ACh of the femoral artery, supplying blood to the locomotor muscles in the hind limbs, was severely affected by diabetes as well as by sedentary behavior, whereas the carotid artery, supplying blood to the brain, showed no detrimental changes in sensitivity from diabetes or from living in an environment that limited movement.
This differential response might simply reflect functional characteristics of the vessels that make the femoral artery more likely to be affected by diabetes and lack of activity.
This idea is supported by the fact that 6 out of 12 and 6 out of 14 femoral vessels showed a complete abolishment of the vasorelaxation response in the in C S and D S groups, respectively.
In these animals, the femoral artery was unable relax in response to cumulative doses of ACh. This lack of endothelium-dependent vasoactive response would profoundly limit the ability of the femoral artery to make adjustments to accommodate blood flow based on increments in metabolic requirements.
On the contrary, the carotid artery showed no negative signs related to diabetes or limited physical activity. This is not necessarily surprising as blood supply to the brain is tightly regulated Vavilala et al. In other words, whereas the stimulus for maintaining endothelium-dependent responses will be fairly constant in the carotid artery independently of diabetes and the limitations for movement imposed by the living environment, the femoral artery will be more affected by the lower metabolic rates associated with the present model.
In agreement with this notion, greater endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation and blood flow have been shown in areas of the muscle that are most active due to increased ACh and e-NOS protein expression Laughlin and Roseguini, These data do not preclude that longer periods of diabetes or inactivity i.
Additionally, although conflictive data exists on this issue, it has to be acknowledged that data in humans have demonstrated a link between type I diabetes and carotid artery dysfunction Vouillarmet et al. In relation to this, a connection between type I diabetes and cerebrovascular disease and stroke has to be acknowledged and, perhaps, certain lack of translation between animal and human data needs to be considered in this case.
Nevertheless, the data from the present study show that, at least in this specific model and testing conditions, functional vasorelaxation responses are vessel-specific.
Importantly, ginseng supplementation resulted in the sensitivity to ACh being re-established in the femoral artery. Although data from the present study cannot determine the mechanisms that mediated this improved functional response, different factors affecting this response could be speculated upon.
For instance, it has been shown that Panax ginseng helps reverse vascular dysfunction induced by diabetes, and that the protective effects are likely explained by down-regulation of atherosclerosis-related genes and altered lipid metabolism, which contribute to re-establish normal endothelium functions Chan et al.
Additionally, different experimental studies have established that ginseng extract provide a direct vasodilatory effect on isolated blood vessels Karmazyn et al. Indeed, a recent review reported that ginsenosides play a role in stimulating NO production in several systems Lü et al.
Another mechanism of action for improved vascular response with ginseng supplementation is related to a reduction in ROS, which are more predominant in diabetic populations Timimi et al.
In this regard, protective effects of ginsenosides have been shown in damaged endothelium from rabbits Gillis, Furthermore, other mechanisms such as blockade of calcium channels have also been implicated in the improved vasodilatory response Kwan et al.
Contrary to our hypothesis, exercise training did not add further improvements to vascular sensitivity compared to ginseng supplementation alone.
Previous studies have shown the positive effects of exercise training on vascular responses Fuchsjager-Mayrl et al. In fact, the use of a high intensity of endurance training was determined by a previous study showing that this but not lower intensities of endurance exercise resulted in better vascular adaptations Murias et al.
For example, this model of type I diabetes with high glucose concentrations would increase oxidative stress Ting et al. In addition to the sensitivity dose—response of the vessels to ACh, this study examined the dynamic adjustment of each artery kinetics response to a dose of 10 -4 M ACh.
Previously, we have demonstrated that diabetes resulted in a slower adjustment of the vasorelaxation response compared to control animals, as shown by a larger τ or TTSS value Murias et al. Similarly, it was established that exercise training restored the dynamic adjustment of diabetic rats to what was observed in the control animals Murias et al.
Surprisingly, the responses in the present investigation did not agree with previous observations. Indeed, the dynamic adjustment of the vasorelaxation response was faster in all diabetic groups compared to the control groups both C and C S , and this change was mediated by a significant reduction in the TTSS in the carotid and aorta vessels under diabetes.
The reasons for this unexpected behavior are unclear, but they might be mediated by the high level of serum glucose concentration. In fact, glucose concentrations lower than 15 mM L -1 were associated with a wider range of dynamic adjustments in the carotid and the aorta, as described elsewhere Murias et al.
Previously, we have interpreted the faster dynamic adjustment in control or in exercise-trained compared to diabetic animals as a positive feature. However, in this case, this faster adjustment, which is even more pronounced in the aorta, is counterintuitive. A previous study has shown enhanced endothelium-dependent vasodilation in the aorta in the early stages of an STZ mouse diabetic model, and attributed this improved response to enhanced production of prostaglandin I 2 and endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor Shen et al.
Another possibility to consider is the role of the glycocalyx in the observed responses. It has been shown that the glycocalyx, a dynamic layer that is important to vascular homeostasis, is affected by circulating blood glucose concentrations Van Teeffelen et al.
A thinner glycocalyx layer as a result of high glucose concentrations would have the opposite results. Nevertheless, although more studies are warranted to mechanistically explain these contradictory responses using different diabetes models, it is important to emphasize that interpretations should be made with caution when trying to extrapolate data from animal models to human responses when the conditions of the model do not closely resemble what is observed in humans i.
Another important finding from this study is the depressed vascular responsiveness to ACh observed in the femoral artery of what was defined as the control sedentary compared to the control group. The reason for the selection of the control sedentary group as presented in this investigation was to mimic similar conditions as those presented in the diabetic animals.
In that sense, it could be argued that this is the appropriate group against which vasorelaxation responses in the diabetic rats should be compared, as all animals were exposed to identical living conditions. However, it could also be argued that the control sedentary group in this study does not represent the responses that would be observed in healthy animals that were not exposed to a sedentary lifestyle.
Under these circumstances, it would remain unclear what part of the detrimental effects in vasorelaxation responses are related to diabetes or to inactive lifestyle per se. As such, appropriate definition of what a control group represents seems warranted when analyzing physiological responses to a given intervention.
A limitation of this study is that we were unable to collect enough tissue to study some potential mechanisms that might control the changes in functional responses observed in this study.
Thus, further research is warranted to elucidate the factors regulating these functional changes. Additionally, it has to be considered that the present results can only be interpreted in relation to the effects of ginseng supplementation on a type I STZ-induced diabetes model.
Future studies should examine whether or not ginseng supplementation has similar effect in other groups. However, the lack of differences in the carotid makes us think that functional rather than stress related factors might be responsible for the observed differences.
In relation to the age, although the C groups was younger than the C S group, both were near or within the range of young adult animals Lewis et al. As for the differences in body mass, it has to be accepted that the greater mass in the C S group might be associated not only to growth but also to an increase in percent body fat, which has been shown to affect vascular response Perticone et al.
Finally, for the present study, length-tension curves were not individually performed for each vessel and the baseline tension for each vessel was based on extensive pilot data examining different baseline tensions for each vessel, as described in the methods. This study demonstrated that diabetes and sedentary lifestyle have detrimental effects on vascular responses that, at least in the present investigation, are mostly observed in the femoral artery, such that the sensitivity to cumulative doses of ACh is reduced.
Importantly, supplementation with herbal medicine ginseng helped in reversing these effects. JM: research design, data collection analysis and interpretation, statistical analysis, manuscript writing and revisions.
MJ: research design, data collection and analysis, manuscript revisions. TD: research design, data analysis, manuscript revisions. EN: research design, data interpretation, manuscript revisions. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
We would like to thank Dr. Edmund Lui for providing us with the ginseng extracts used in this study. Amin, K. Effects of panax quinquefolium on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats: role of C-peptide, nitric oxide and oxidative stress.
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Bhatia, V. Severe hypoglycemia in youth with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: frequency and causative factors. Pediatrics 88, — Chan, G. Ginseng extracts restore high-glucose induced vascular dysfunctions by altering triglyceride metabolism and downregulation of atherosclerosis-related genes.
Based Complement. Chen, X. Cardiovascular protection by ginsenosides and their nitric oxide releasing action.
Extensive but often Fuel for Peak Performance designed Fish Tank Water Quality Monitoring have been conducted Gniseng the use of Endurancs ginseng Panax ginseng to improve athletic Ginseg. Historically, it has been used to help people who are fatigued feel less lethargic. The energizing effects of Asian ginseng only last while it is in your system. Used in the recommended amounts, ginseng is generally safe. In rare instances, it may cause over-stimulation and possibly insomnia. The Gijseng highlighted the role Ginseng for endurance ginesenosides, and Joint health endurance ginsenoside Enurance 1. Although there are several clinical Gisneng, almost none mention its composition. The researchers trawled seven databases and general web search engines for the review from 15 to 22 March Overall, five RCTs with 90 adult participants were analysed alongside control groups. ginseng and P.
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