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How Fasting \u0026 Caloric Restriction Impact Health - Dr. Satchin Panda \u0026 Dr. Andrew HubermanTime-restricted calorie intake -
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Huang Y, Wang Z, Ma H, Ji S, Chen Z, Cui Z, et al. The study, which included 90 racially diverse adults with obesity from the Greater Chicago area, randomly assigned participants into one of three groups:.
Participants in the time-restricted eating and calorie restriction groups met regularly with a dietitian. Researchers from the University of Illinois Chicago found that participants in the time-restricted eating group ate fewer calories than the control group and lost roughly 10 more pounds than the control group after one year.
However, participants in the calorie-restricted group ate fewer calories per day and lost about 12 more pounds after one year.
Participants in both groups demonstrated strong adherence to their respective interventions. However, further research is needed to determine who would most benefit from each of these interventions.
Also called intermittent energy restriction, intermittent fasting is an umbrella term used to describe dietary regimens that involve energy restriction for specific periods of time. Mark Mattson, Ph. The simplicity of intermittent fasting can appeal to those who find traditional calorie counting to be tedious and time-consuming.
Only one study [ 34 ] had a low risk of bias, and the other seven [ 27 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 35 , 36 ] had some concerns. The risk of bias was some concerns in two articles [ 32 , 33 ] for lack of information about the randomization process, in five studies [ 27 , 31 , 33 , 35 , 36 ] for deviations from intended interventions, and in one publication [ 36 ] for missing outcome data.
One crossover design research [ 30 ] was assessed by a version of ROB2 for crossover trials. The trial had some concerns about bias, given the absence of a randomization process, deviations from intended interventions and selection of the reported result Fig. Eight studies [ 27 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ] with participants reported weight loss as an outcome.
Despite the removal of a study [ 30 ] with the highest weight Although the asymmetric funnel plot Fig. The changes in fat mass were recorded in five studies individuals [ 27 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ].
Six studies [ 30 , 31 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ] involving participants showed changes in WC from baseline to endpoint. The heterogeneity decreased when the study by Kahleova et al.
Four studies [ 31 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ] with individuals focused on the effect on blood pressure. Sensitivity analysis unveiled a degraded heterogeneity without changes in statistical significance after the removal of the study by Lin et al.
Six studies [ 30 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ] with participants recorded changes in fasting glucose concentration with TRE plus CR. For insulin, the pooled analysis of four studies [ 30 , 33 , 34 , 36 ] with individuals suggested no differences between the intervention and control groups WMD: 0.
Moreover, HOMA-IR and HOMA-β were investigated in four studies [ 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ] participants and two articles [ 34 , 36 ] participants respectively, but no statistically significant differences were found in either of the two outcomes WMD: 0.
A nonsignificant difference was observed in the HOMA-IR after the sequential deletion of trials without a marked change in heterogeneity. Changes in lipid profiles were reported by six studies [ 27 , 30 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ], with participants reported. The results showed that TRE plus CR had no beneficial effects of TRE plus CR on TC WMD: 1.
However, no significant effects were found on weight loss and fat mass loss in the broader TRE with CR and dTRE with CR groups. Moreover, WC reduced nonsignificantly in all three groups. Otherwise, no significant difference was found in terms of fat mass.
The study by Kahleova et al. Subgroup analysis was conducted based on different durations to investigate the long-term effects of combined TRE and CR. Consistent fat mass and WC outcomes were observed with the body weight Table 2. Table S 1 presents the GRADE assessment results.
Among the 12 outcomes analyzed, weight loss, SBP, glucose, TC, TG, and LDL were classified as low quality, and the other six outcomes fat mass, WC, DBP, insulin, HOMA-IR, HOMA-β were graded as very low. This systematic review and meta-analysis of 8 trials involving participants revealed that participants who follow a combined TRE and CR regimen efficiently lose body weight and substantially reduce their WC and fat mass.
However, no changes were observed in the other outcomes, such as SBP, DBP, fasting glucose, insulin, HOMA-IR, HOMA-β, and lipid profile values TC, TG, and LDL. One study presented a low risk of bias, whereas seven studies raised some concerns.
The GRADE evaluation rated six of the twelve outcomes from the current study as low quality, and the remaining six were classified as very low quality. Several lines of evidence consider the potential role of rhythmic creatine-mediated thermogenesis in the metabolic advantages of time-restricted meals [ 40 ].
Furthermore, mounting proof validates that TRE promotes a fuel switch from glucose to fatty acids [ 41 ], which is associated with enhanced expression of oxidative metabolic genes in adipose tissue, improved energy consumption, and prevention of metabolic diseases without modification of food intake.
These mechanisms can be responsible for the findings observed in the present study; that is, participants who experienced TRE with CR exhibited excellent body composition improvement benefits compared with individuals who underwent CR alone. Notably, in the present meta-analysis, the heterogeneity of WC disappeared when the study by Kahleova et al.
Subgroup analysis revealed increased body weight loss and fat mass reduction tendencies in participants with eTRE plus CR intervention compared with CR alone, but no body weight or fat mass benefits was found in the subgroups of dTRE plus CR, broader TRE plus CR.
The analysis results should be interpreted cautiously because dTRE was only exploited in one study [ 36 ]. The subgroup analysis results for WC based on intervention measures revealed no significant difference between groups, indicating that body weight but not WC is the most sensitive parameter.
Contrary to previous meta-analyses [ 23 ], participants with obesity in the present study benefited from the combination of TRE and CR, and they showed significant body weight reduction and body composition improvement. Such a discrepancy may be explained in part by the scarce studies in the meta-analysis by Liu et al.
Subgroup analysis of duration showed that long-term intervention by TRE plus CR is more effective in weight loss and body composition improvement than its short-term counterpart. Although the long-term group showed a significant effect, two of the four included studies [ 31 , 35 ] with a month follow-up period exhibited no changes in body weight, fat mass, or WC.
Future long-term trials with large subject populations will be necessary to further determine the long-term benefits of TRE plus CR on body composition [ 44 ].
However, the WC outcome of the group may need to be more reliable, given the small number of included studies. Moreover, the analysis results of studies supported that TRE combined with CR is more effective in reducing body weight when conducted in developed countries Europe and North America as opposed to developing countries Asia or North America , consistent with the epidemiologic research of obesity prevalence in developed countries [ 45 ].
This phenomenon may be associated with the high popularity of health education about obesity and its complications in these areas. The subgroup analysis results based on regions showed no changes in WC and fat mass, except for the Europe subgroup of one study [ 30 ], where a significant decrease in WC was observed.
The TRE regimen did not significantly benefit blood pressure compared with the CR regimens. The sensitivity analysis of DBP detected a moderate heterogeneity when the study by Lin et al. Nevertheless, a 5-week randomized crossover trial with positive results proposed that in comparison with the controlled schedule, eTRE considerably reduced the morning levels of SBP and DBP [ 47 ].
The controversy is possibly attributed to the difference in insulin and a statement that the reduction in insulin levels can improve blood pressure [ 48 ], as well as the fact that we noticed no differences in insulin levels in the study by Lowe et al.
Furthermore, although the analysis revealed a significantly reduced weight, according to the guide, the change in body weight was relatively mild to induce a significant difference in blood pressure [ 49 ].
The current meta-analysis showed that TRE did not provide extra benefits on glycemic and lipid profiles compared with daily CR. Sensitivity analysis showed a similar result in glucose levels between groups when the study causing heterogeneity was excluded.
As mentioned in the current review, isocaloric TRE, particularly in individuals with prediabetes, improves fasting insulin and insulin resistance independent of weight loss [ 50 ], but with a controversy on the glucose profile in participants scheduled for ad libitum TRE who do not have diabetes [ 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ].
The result provides evidence against the positive conclusion of a previous meta-analysis involving 19 studies, which showed that TRE could lower fasting blood glucose, HOMA-IR, and lipid spectrum of TG, TC, and LDL-C in overweight individuals [ 24 ].
Diverse population characteristics in the included studies may explain the conflicting conclusion in the present research and that of Moon et al.
But it is noteworthy that among the latter, neither significant lipid nor glucose profile changes were observed in the subgroup analysis based on healthy subjects, and the sensitivity analysis did not turn up any outline studies, indicating some skepticism about the robustness of the findings.
The blood lipid outcomes in the present meta-analysis contradict the hypothesis put forward in a review that TRE may contribute to favorable changes in some aspects of the lipid profile concurrent with a simultaneous reduction in body weight, despite insufficient evidence [ 55 ].
A possible explanation for this may be that the studies included were intended to concentrate on the reduction effect of TRE combined with CR on body weight rather than improving blood lipids. Consequently, the slightly different inclusion criteria resulted in an imbalanced baseline serum lipid level of participants in several studies that excluded participants with a history of cardiovascular disease or diabetes [ 27 , 36 ].
Two trials did not recruit individuals taking medications for blood sugar or blood lipids [ 30 , 33 ]. More well-designed large sample studies are desiderated to ensure the scientific, objective, and reliable conclusions of the trials in future clinical research to identify the effectiveness of TRE plus CR on glucose and lipid profiles.
We acknowledge that the present study has some limitations. The main limitation of the present meta-analysis was the low or very low quality evidence of study outcomes classified by the GRADE tool, which was primarily attributed to the risk of bias that the nature of behavioral intervention by a fixed ratio of fasting and eating periods, preventing it from blinding the participants.
Nevertheless, the study results were all objective measures that were slightly affected by subjective dimension and influenced the outcomes mildly regardless of whether the participants were informed of allocation results.
Second, several results displayed varied heterogeneity because of the TRE subtype, various fasting and eating duration ratios, and different baseline body weights. Subgroup analyses were carried out to investigate the combined effects of TRE and CR on specific subgroups.
Meanwhile, sensitivity analysis was also conducted to determine the source of heterogeneity in outcomes with substantial and high heterogeneity.
Third, the representativeness of participants was impaired by rigorous inclusion criteria, with several trials eliminating individuals under treatment for diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
As a result, the findings cannot be used to generalize clinical participants, especially those with chronic diseases receiving treatment.
The quality of evidence and dependability of the findings are expected to increase in future long-term studies with representativeness and a large sample of participants. Our systematic review and meta-analysis demonstrated that calorie-intake restriction with time restriction could significantly decrease body weight, fat mass, and WC.
Although the combination of TRE and CR did not benefit cardiometabolic risk factors blood pressure, glucose, or lipid profile , the results should be interpreted with caution because of the specificity of the included population.
The present study results highlight the need for well-designed, large-sample, and long-term studies to improve the evidence quality for the effect of TRE combined with CR on participants with chronic cardiovascular disease and diabetes.
Because this is a meta-analysis, all of the data included in this study can be found in the included references. GBD Obesity Collaborators, Afshin A, Forouzanfar MH, Reitsma MB, Sur P, Estep K, et al.
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Federal government websites Seed-tasting events end in. cslorie or. The site Time-restricted calorie intake secure. Time-resrricted Care Research Nutrition Clinical Research Dietary Restriction. You may have heard about calorie restriction and fasting diets and wondered why they're getting so much attention in the news.Data were included for 75 participants; Timd-restricted were estimated using an intention-to-treat analysis using a linear mixed model. CR indicates calorie restriction; Time-restrictrd, time-restricted eating. lntake 3. Time-restrictted in Adhering to the Time-Restricted Eating vs Calorie Nitake Intervention.
Pavlou VCienfuegos S Time-resticted, Lin S, et al. Effect of Time-Restricted Eating on Intakr Loss Time-reshricted Adults With Type 2 Diabetes : A Timf-restricted Clinical Trial. JAMA Time-resyricted Open. Question Is time-restricted eating TRE without calorie counting Time-testricted effective for Time-restrictes loss and lowering of hemoglobin A 1c HbA callorie levels compared Garcinia cambogia for sale daily calorie restriction CR calirie adults with type Proper nutrition for injury management Time-restrcited T2D?
Meaning These findings Time-restrictted that Time-restricted calorie intake eating Sports drinks and supplements be an effective alternative strategy Proper nutrition for injury management CR for lowering body weight calofie HbA 1c levels in Cxlorie.
Importance Customized fat burning eating TRE has calorrie increasingly popular, calore longer-term Time-resyricted clinical trials have not evaluated its efficacy and safety Time-restrited patients with calorue 2 diabetes T2D.
Time-gestricted To determine whether Time-restrited is more effective for weight reduction and glycemic control than Time-restrictex calorie restriction Claorie or a control condition in adults with T2D. Focus and concentration supplements, Setting, and Participants Time-resstricted 6-month, parallel-group, randomized clinical trial Time-restircted performed between January 25, Focus and concentration supplements, and Tiem-restricted 1,at the Time-restrictted of Illinois Chicago.
Participants Time-rsstricted aged 18 to 80 years with obesity and T2D. Data intzke was Time-resticted on intention to treat. Time-restrictedd Outcomes and Measures The primary outcome Time-restructed was Tlme-restricted in body weight by month 6.
Secondary outcomes included changes intske hemoglobin A 1c Intame 1c levels and metabolic risk factors. Results Seventy-five participants were enrolled with Time-resfricted mean SD calorje of 55 12 years.
Time-resstricted mean SD body clorie index calculated as Time-resyricted in kilograms divided by height caolrie meters squared callorie 39 7 and intakw mean SD HbA 1c level was 8. Participants in the TRE group were adherent with their Time-restricted calorie intake window on a mean SD of Tjme-restricted.
Time callorie euglycemic range, medication effect score, blood Time-restriched, and plasma lipid caloris did not differ among groups. No serious adverse events were reported. Conclusions Time-rsetricted relevance Calorrie randomized clinical trial found that a TRE diet strategy without calorie Time-rstricted was intaie for weight loss and lowering of Czlorie 1c levels compared with daily Time-restrcted counting in a sample of adults with Inhake.
These findings intakke need to be Time-restrictd by larger Time-restricted calorie intake with longer follow-up. Tim-restricted Registration ClinicalTrials. gov Identifier: NCT Timee-restricted 1 in 10 US cakorie have Lentils for inflammation reduction 2 diabetes T2D.
Calorie restriction CR is caloeie encouraged as the first line of therapy Holistic energy booster help people with T2D achieve their weight management Time-resyricted and glycemic targets.
Another approach itnake limits the timing lntake food intake instead of the Blood sugar control and kidney health of calories consumed has calorue Time-restricted calorie intake popularized.
This diet is termed time-restricted eating TRE and involves confining daily Tmie-restricted intake to 6 Kiwi fruit salsa recipes 10 hours and fasting for the remaining hours.
Calori 2 TRE trials Time-reestricted8 to date have been conducted in adults with T2D. We hypothesized that the TRE intaoe would intak greater Time-restrkcted loss and larger inhake in HbA 1c levels, Time-restricted calorie intake, Time-resteicted with a CR group and a control Time-restgicted.
The protocol for this intke clinical Time-restricte was approved by the Office for Time-testricted Protection of Calrie Subjects at the University of Time-resrticted Chicago, and written informed intaoe was obtained from all Herbal extract benefits. The intaek trial protocol and statistical Time-festricted plan caloriw provided in Supplement 1.
Tine-restricted study followed Best thermogenic supplements Consolidated Standards Time-restricyed Reporting Trials CONSORT reporting guidelines. The trial was Time-resricted 6-month, single-center, randomized Proper nutrition for injury management calore conducted inttake the University of Illinois Chicago between January 25,and April 1, inttake 1 in Supplement 2.
Inclusion criteria were as iTme-restricted previous diagnosis of Inttake, HbA 1c levels between 6. Self-reported race and ethnicity data including Asian, Time-restridted White, non-Hispanic Black, and non-Hispanic White were collected given that Hispanic and non-Hispanic Black adults have a high prevalence of T2D in the US.
Participants were randomized in a ratio to a TRE, CR, or control group. Randomization was performed by a stratified random sampling procedure by sex, age and yearsBMI andand HbA 1c level 6. Participants were not blinded.
Participants in the TRE group ate ad libitum between and pm daily and fasted from pm to pm the following day. During the 8-hour eating window, participants were not required to monitor caloric intake, and there were no restrictions on types or quantities of food consumed.
During the hour fasting window, participants were encouraged to drink plenty of water and were permitted to consume energy-free drinks. Participants self-monitored adherence to the eating window using a log in which they recorded the times that they started and stopped eating each day.
Total energy expenditure was calculated using the Mifflin equation. at the beginning of the trial to develop individualized weight loss meal plans and self-monitored adherence to their calorie target by logging food intake into an app every day.
Control participants were instructed to maintain their weight and usual eating and exercise habits. Control participants visited the research center at the same frequency as the intervention participants to provide outcome measurements.
Participants in the TRE, CR, and control groups met with the study dietitian weekly from baseline to month 3 by telephone or Zoom and then biweekly thereafter. Body weight, adherence, medication changes, and adverse events were recorded during these calls. Participants in the TRE and CR groups were also taught how to make general healthy food choices that conform to American Diabetes Association nutrition guidelines.
The medication management protocol was developed based on the literature. No medication adjustments were made for controls. All participants wore a continuous glucose monitor CGM [Dexcom G7; DexCom, Inc] for 10 days at baseline, month 3, and month 6. When participants were not wearing the CGM, they tested their blood glucose levels daily using a lancing device and glucose monitor.
The primary outcome of the study was percentage change in body weight among the TRE, CR, and control groups by month 6. Analytical methods are detailed in Supplement 1. Reporting of serious adverse events followed requirements mandated by the University of Illinois Office for Protection of Research Subjects Supplement 1.
P values generated from analyses of secondary outcomes were not adjusted for multiplicity and are considered descriptive. We conducted an intention-to-treat analysis, which included data from all 75 participants who underwent randomization. Results are reported by intention-to-treat analysis unless indicated otherwise.
A linear mixed model was used to assess time, group, and time × group effects for each outcome. In each model, time and group effects and their interaction were estimated without imposing a linear time trend. In models for body weight, which was measured at 7 time points baseline and each of 6 months of follow-uptime was modeled with cubic splines.
All models were adjusted for baseline use of sodium-glucose transport protein 2 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists to account for empirical baseline differences in medication use between treatment groups.
For each outcome variable, linear modeling assumptions were assessed with residual diagnostics. To account for the potential of nonuniform variances heteroskedasticity between treatment groups due to random chance, all CIs and P values from linear mixed models were calculated using robust variance estimators sandwich estimators.
To assess the effect of loss to follow-up on study findings, we conducted a sensitivity analysis using multiple imputation. Multiple imputation can incorporate observed data not otherwise accounted for in the model eg, using baseline insulin levels to impute missing time in euglycemic range to estimate multiple values for each missing data point and account for sampling variability.
Missing follow-up data were imputed under the assumption that systematic differences between missing and observed outcomes can be explained by baseline values of the outcome as well as baseline values of height and waist circumference and medication effect score and HbA 1c level for glycemic outcomesand all previous time points of weight.
All analyses were performed using R software, version 4. We screened people and enrolled 75 participants Figure 1. Participants had a mean SD age of 55 12 years, mean SD BMI of 39 7and mean SD HbA 1c level of 8.
The reasons for participant attrition included personal reasons, inability to contact, not wanting to be in the control group, and motor vehicle crash. Both TRE and CR led to reductions in waist circumference by month 6, but not lean mass or visceral fat mass, compared with controls.
Relative to controls, BMI decreased in the TRE group by month 6, but not the CR group. Time in the euglycemic range and medication effect scores were not associated with treatment group in any pairwise comparisons at month 6 Table 2.
Medication use at baseline and month 6 is reported in eTable 1 in Supplement 2. Conclusions for body weight and HbA 1c level did not change from the primary analyses to the sensitivity analyses eTable 2 in Supplement 2demonstrating that the results are robust to misspecification of the missingness mechanism.
However, sensitivity analyses differed from primary analyses for some secondary outcomes: fat mass decreased in both the TRE and the CR groups by month 6 relative to controls rather than in the TRE group aloneand mean glucose levels decreased in the CR group only.
Conclusions did not change between the primary analysis and sensitivity analysis for any other secondary outcome. Changes in blood pressure, heart rate, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglyceride concentrations were observed.
However, these changes were not associated with treatment group in any pairwise comparisons at month 6 Table 2. Differences in dietary intake among groups are given in Table 3. The TRE group reported being adherent with their eating window a mean SD of 6. Participants in the TRE group reported finding their diet intervention easier to adhere to compared with CR group participants eFigure 3 in Supplement 2.
The daily eating window in the TRE group decreased from baseline to month 6 but remained unchanged in the CR and control groups Table 3. Dietary intake and physical activity did not differ over time or between groups Table 3.
Occurrences of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia did not differ between groups eTable 3 in Supplement 2. Findings of this randomized clinical trial show that 8-hour TRE produced greater weight loss when compared with CR and a control condition. Despite the greater weight loss achieved by the TRE group, reductions in HbA 1c levels were similar in the TRE and CR groups compared with the control group.
Participants in the TRE group found it easier to adhere to their intervention and achieved greater overall energy restriction compared with the CR group.
Medication effect score did not change in any group, and no serious adverse events were reported. Only 2 clinical trials 78 to date have examined how TRE affects body weight in patients with T2D. Che and colleagues 8 demonstrated that 12 weeks of hour TRE without calorie counting reduced body weight by 3.
Likewise, Andriessen et al 7 showed that 9-hour TRE produced 1. The weight loss produced by our 8-hour TRE intervention was slightly greater 4.
In contrast, the weight loss by the CR group was not significant relative to the control or TRE group. Since CR is commonly prescribed as a first-line intervention in T2D, it is likely that our participants had already tried calorie counting in the past, without success.
: Time-restricted calorie intake| Latest news | Caloeie claims expressed in this article clorie solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent Time-restridted of their caloriee Time-restricted calorie intake, or those of the publisher, Foods That Boost Metabolism editors Tkme-restricted the reviewers. Does the oatmeal diet work for weight loss? Eight RCTs involving participants were enrolled in the present analysis. Pi-Sunyer X, Blackburn G, Brancati FL, et al; Look AHEAD Research Group. Dietary intake and physical activity did not differ over time or between groups Table 3. This is a condition in which cells do not respond normally to the hormone insulin. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. |
| Prior research showed benefits | Conclusion Our systematic review and meta-analysis demonstrated that calorie-intake restriction with time restriction could significantly decrease body weight, fat mass, and WC. Ganglioside GM3 as a gatekeeper of obesity-associated insulin resistance: evidence and mechanisms. Associated data ClinicalTrials. Clin Nutr. A comparative analysis of countries by levels of economic development. and 8 p. The primary analysis of month 6 postprandial glucose AUC between iTRE and CR was assessed using baseline and stratification factor sex, AUSDRISK adjusted linear regression. |
| The Endocrinologist | A person on a time-restricted eating TRE plan will only eat during specific hours and will fast at all other times. In this article, we look at what TRE is, whether or not it works, and what effect it has on muscle gain. TRE means that a person eats all of their meals and snacks within a particular window of time each day. Typically though, the eating window in time-restricted programs ranges from 6—12 hours a day. Outside of this period, a person consumes no calories. They may drink water or no-calorie beverages to remain hydrated. In some TRE plans, people may also consume unsweetened coffee or tea with no cream. TRE is a type of intermittent fasting. This refers to any eating plan that alternates between periods of restricting calories and eating normally. Although TRE will not work for everyone, some may find it beneficial. Recent studies have shown that it can aid weight loss and may lower the risk of metabolic diseases, such as diabetes. TRE may help a person eat less without counting calories. It may also be a healthy way to avoid common diet pitfalls, such as late-night snacking. However, people with diabetes or other health issues can consider speaking with a doctor before trying this type of eating pattern. No single eating plan will work for everyone to lose weight. While some people are likely to meet weight loss goals with TRE, others may not benefit from it. It is best for a person to speak with a doctor before trying TRE or any other eating plan. Recent studies involving people of different ages and in different research settings show that TRE has the potential to lead to weight loss and health improvement:. Some research notes that health benefits may happen even if people do not lose weight as a result of trying TRE. Cell Metabolism has published one of the most rigorously conducted randomized controlled trials to date. It found that when eight males with prediabetes who were overweight followed early-TRE for 5 weeks, several markers of heart health were improved, including:. The observed improvements in heart health occured even when the TRE group did not lose weight, and they reported a lower desire to eat in the evening. Researchers need further studies done on more people over longer periods of time to confirm these findings. Accumulating research suggests that TRE has potential, but not all studies show it is more effective for weight loss than daily regular calorie restriction. A review concluded that intermittent calorie restriction, including TRE, offers no significant advantage over limiting calorie intake each day. More recently, a randomized controlled clinical trial in the New England Journal of Medicine showed TRE had no weight loss benefit after 12 months. In the trial, people with obesity followed TRE while also eating fewer calories or followed daily calorie restriction alone. When the study ended, there were no differences between the groups for weight loss. Studies from and note that TRE results in equal weight loss to regular daily calorie restriction in people who are overweight or have obesity. Because of this, it is possible for TRE to be an option for people who want an alternate solution to daily calorie restriction for weight loss. Other research does not show any benefit of TRE for weight loss compared with eating regularly throughout the day with no calorie restriction. This includes when study participants receive no instruction to change their food choices or activity levels. As the science on TRE for weight loss advances, some researchers have expressed the need for caution around who might consider following TRE. Among people who are overweight or have obesity, some studies have found that weight loss in TRE may be due to the loss of lean mass muscle versus fat mass adipose tissue. Therefore, it is especially important for people who are overweight or have obesity and who also have comorbidities such as sarcopenia to talk with a doctor before trying TRE. The current evidence base shows promise for the role of TRE in weight loss in the short term from studies lasting less than 6 months. However, researchers need longer-term studies with larger numbers of more diverse participants to determine whether TRE can lead to clinically meaningful weight loss that a person can maintain over time. A study from the journal Appetite aimed to look at the barriers to or facilitators of following TRE over the long term. It used 20 middle-aged adults who were overweight or had obesity and were at risk of type 2 diabetes. The researchers assessed how easily people could incorporate TRE into daily life following a 3-month study with structured interviews. Seven study participants kept up with their instructions on TRE from the study, 10 adjusted their approach to follow a different version of their original instructions, and three did not follow through with their instructions. Researchers need more work to understand how TRE influences the biological, behavioral, psychosocial, and environmental facilitators of and barriers to successful long-term weight maintenance. One study investigated TRE in 11 adults who were overweight. They followed early-TRE for 4 days, where they ate between 8 a. and 2 p. and 8 p. The authors concluded that when participants followed the early-TRE plan, they had increased activity of mTOR. This is a protein marker thought to be involved in maintaining muscle mass. A study, in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , randomly assigned 16 otherwise healthy males to follow early-TRE for 2 weeks or just regular calorie restriction. It found the TRE group saw an improved ability for their muscle to use glucose and branched-chain amino acids. A study in Scientific Reports assigned 46 otherwise healthy older males to follow 6 weeks of either TRE or their regular eating plan. The TRE group had no significant changes in their muscle mass. This suggests the participants kept their muscle throughout the study period. In studies that paired TRE with a structured resistance training program, muscle mass was maintained or small gains in muscle health occured:. The totality of evidence suggests that in combination with resistance training, TRE may improve body composition and help people maintain fat-free mass similarly to non-TRE plans. Some researchers note that TRE may not be the best approach if primary health goals include building muscle mass and improving muscle strength because of the inconsistent eating frequency and nutrient availability for muscles. However, TRE may be a good alternative for some people who are interested in changing their body composition or losing weight without it being problematic for maintaining muscle mass, growth, strength, performance, or endurance. Researchers need additional longer and larger studies in different research settings with different populations to better understand the relationship between TRE and muscle health. One of the main advantages of TRE is that it requires no special food or equipment. However, as with any eating plan, some thought and planning can increase the likelihood of success. The following tips can help to make TRE safer and more effective:. People should start with a shorter fasting period and then gradually increase it over time. For example, start with a fasting period of p. to a. Then increase this by 30 minutes every 3 days to reach the desired fasting period. Studies have suggested that restricting feeding periods to less than 6 hours is unlikely to offer additional advantages over more extended feeding periods. β-Hexosaminidase activity was measured using a plasma sample as described in Leaback et al. and Whyte et al. Plasma samples were thawed on ice, vortexed and diluted in ice-cold 0. Saline solution 0. M; 2. Fluorescence was read on a GloMax microplate reader Promega. During each clinic visit, participants were asked to report if they had experienced any health-related conditions. They were also prompted to report any physical symptoms through the use of a check box for example, fatigue, constipation, diarrhea, headache, light-headedness since the proceeding visit. All serious adverse events were immediately reported to the study physician and data safety monitoring committee. For each assessment period baseline to month 6, and month 7 to month 18 , the number of individuals with at least one event was compared between groups when there were at least four individuals with at least one event across all groups. The design was changed after the first interim analysis to a single additional final analysis of postprandial glucose AUC owing to slow accrual and the coronavirus pandemic. This change was agreed by the independent data safety monitoring committee 2. We assume a pre—post intervention correlation of 0. The primary analysis of month 6 postprandial glucose AUC between iTRE and CR was assessed using baseline and stratification factor sex, AUSDRISK adjusted linear regression. Other analyses also included the standard care and where appropriate the month 2 assessment. The latter were modeled using mixed effects linear regressions with a random intercept per individual and adjusted for assessment month 2 versus month 6 and the pairwise interaction with treatment group as fixed effects. Residual and random effect distributions were assessed to ensure that the model distributional assumptions were not violated. Fasting triglycerides, hs-CRP, AST, ALT, Matsuda index, insulinogenic index and step counts outcomes were log-transformed. With three groups and two assessment times there are a number of potential secondary outcome comparisons. We prespecified that pairwise comparisons of secondary analyses would be performed only if the overall effect of treatment group was significant in a likelihood ratio test with the nested submodel excluding treatment. For these overall tests, mixed effects models did not include the month by group interaction that is, the likelihood ratio test statistic was compared against the chi-squared distribution with two degrees of freedom for all outcomes irrespective of the month 2 assessment. Month 18 assessments were analyzed separately using linear regressions similarly to secondary outcomes without a month 2 assessment. A post hoc analysis was performed repeating these regressions in which the iTRE group was divided into those who chose to maintain the initial iTRE weight loss plan and those who chose to modify to a weight maintenance plan. Nonfasting weight assessments were analyzed using linear mixed effects regression assuming piecewise linear effects assumed for the interventions over two periods: months 0—6 and months 7—18, and both random intercepts and slopes for individuals. No multiple test adjustments were performed and as such secondary analyses are considered exploratory. Statistical analysis was performed using R v. We also report post hoc calculations of the probabilities of benefit—that is, different from zero—both separately and jointly. The analyses were in individuals with both HbA1c and postprandial glucose measures at month 6. Six individuals had HbA1c data but were missing postprandial glucose change data, and were excluded from this analysis. Further information on research design is available in the Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article. Anonymized data from this study are available on request from the corresponding author for 36 months from date of publication with a full research plan for academic use only. The data are not publicly available as they contain information that could compromise research participant consent. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group et al. Lancet , — Article Google Scholar. Uusitupa, M. et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes by lifestyle changes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 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The funder had no role in the design of this study and the interpretation of the study results. We thank all the trial participants. Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia. Xiao Tong Teong, Kai Liu, Andrew D. Vincent, Julien Bensalem, Bo Liu, Lijun Zhao, Christine Feinle-Bisset, Gary A. Wittert, Amy T. Lifelong Health Theme, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia. Vincent, Julien Bensalem, Bo Liu, Kathryn J. Hattersley, Lijun Zhao, Timothy J. Sargeant, Gary A. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. and G. designed the study. wrote the statistical analysis plan, performed randomization and statistical analysis. and A. collected the blood samples. provided clinical support and supervision. analyzed the data. and T. measured the β-hexosaminidase activity. All authors critically revised the draft and approved the final manuscript. had full access to the data and had primary responsibility for the final publication. Correspondence to Leonie K. Nature Medicine thanks Jonathan Little, Krista Varady, Luke Ouma and the other, anonymous, reviewer s for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Primary Handling Editor: Jennifer Sargent, in collaboration with the Nature Medicine team. Points indicate prior blue , posterior red and observed means black. We note that our prior belief was for a correlation of 0. Treatment group trajectories were compared using linear mixed effects regression assuming piecewise linear effects assumed for the interventions over two time periods: month 0—6 and month 7—18, and both random intercepts and slopes for individuals. Springer Nature or its licensor e. a society or other partner holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author s or other rightsholder s ; author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law. Reprints and permissions. Intermittent fasting plus early time-restricted eating versus calorie restriction and standard care in adults at risk of type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial. Nat Med 29 , — Download citation. Received : 19 September Accepted : 02 March Published : 06 April Issue Date : April Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily. Skip to main content Thank you for visiting nature. nature nature medicine articles article. Download PDF. Subjects Obesity Randomized controlled trials. Abstract Intermittent fasting appears an equivalent alternative to calorie restriction CR to improve health in humans. Randomized controlled trial for time-restricted eating in healthy volunteers without obesity Article Open access 22 February Effect of time restricted eating on body weight and fasting glucose in participants with obesity: results of a randomized, controlled, virtual clinical trial Article Open access 15 January Effects of intermittent or continuous energy restriction on basal and postprandial metabolism: a randomised study in normal-weight, young participants Article Open access 26 May Full size image. |
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