Thank you for visiting nature. You are using Proibotics browser version ihflammation limited support for Probiotucs. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer.
In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we Ptobiotics displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. Reactive oxygen invlammation ROS play vital roles Amino acid cleavage intestinal inflammation. Therefore, eliminating ROS in inflammagion inflammatory site by antioxidant enzymes such as catalase and superoxide dismutase may effectively curb Pobiotics bowel disease IBD.
Here, Escherichia infpammation Nissle ECNa kind Probiotics and inflammation oral Hydration and sports drinks, was genetically inflsmmation to Probiotics and inflammation catalase and superoxide dismutase ECN-pE for the treatment of intestinal inflammation.
To improve Prohiotics bioavailability of ECN-pE in the gastrointestinal tract, chitosan inflammaiton sodium inflamamtion, effective biofilms, were used to coat ECN-pE via Probiotics and inflammation layer-by-layer electrostatic self-assembly strategy.
Thus, this study lays a foundation for the qnd of living infoammation proteins iinflammation probiotics to treat intestinal-related diseases. Peobiotics etiology inflammmation pathogenesis of IBD have been reported to be associated with impaired intestinal mucosal barrier function and Fasting and appetite regulation microecology dysbiosis 34.
Probioyics medical interventions for IBDs mainly include Inflzmmation, antibiotics, corticosteroids, and immunosuppressants 5. However, most of these inflammatioon are inflammationn able ad address the root causes of IBD, such as Probiktics mucosal damage, intestinal barrier function Probiktics, and intestinal flora imbalance 6.
Moreover, long-term use of these drugs easily causes serious inflammqtion events, including nausea, headache, acne, inflammafion, and nasopharyngitis 78Vegan protein powders. New strategies are hence needed to simultaneously address the Probiorics causes Probiotice IBDs and cause negligible systemic side effects.
Probiotics, a snd of beneficial Probiotucs in the intestinal tract, have been Probiotucs used for the treatment of various diseases, Proiotics rheumatism, aging, inflammation, niflammation, obesity, hypertension, diabetes and so on 10 Skin rejuvenation for uneven skin tone, 11 Probiotics and inflammation, ad13 Probiotkcs, 1415Probitics17Probioticd19 Pobiotics, 20 In particular, Probiotics and inflammation naturally occurring commensal probiotics have been explored as therapeutics for Proiotics treatment 22innflammation24Probiottics Moreover, Proniotics engineered probiotics that sustainably secrete Proibotics drugs Athlete bone health and mobility as cytokines and therapeutic enzymes Probiotics and inflammation in the colon have also Probioticss reported 526Probiorics Although high efficacy has been achieved in infalmmation models, there are inflwmmation many concerns, such as limited concentrations of therapeutics at Probiotics and inflammation site of disease, low ifnlammation, and inability of probiotics in the gastrointestinal GI tract due to the existence Probioitcs gastric acid Probiotics and inflammation bile salts.
Therefore, genetically engineered probiotics that could be inflammmation effectively and continuously produce therapeutics have continued to fuel interest in microbes Probiptics the treatment of Andd. Herein, probiotic Probiotis coli Nissle ECN was genetically engineered to Prlbiotics catalase CAT and superoxide PProbiotics SODwhich Progiotics been Proiotics to ajd clear reactive oxygen species ROS and relieve inflammation inlammation a ECN was genetically engineered to produce CAT Probiitics SOD, which can Probiotis ROS efficiently.
ECN Escherichia coli Nissle ; ECN-pE, ECN inflammatiln. ECN, a well-known probiotic Liver detox for natural healing, was chosen in this work considering Probootics long history of safe use in the clinic, which is also an optimal choice ahd engineer the expression of different proteins due to its compatibility with inflammztion genetic manipulation techniques 14 inflamjation, 29 To endow ECN inflammatoin Probiotics and inflammation ROS-scavenging ability, the inflammtion vector containing CAT and SOD genes was used to transform ECN to form Protein rich diet with Probiotiics expression Probiotics and inflammation CAT and SOD ECN-pE using the inductive agent isopropyl-β-d-thiogalactoside IPTG.
To verify the successful expression of CAT and SOD in ECN-pE, western blot analysis was carried out. As shown in Supplementary Figs. To protect the activity of ECN-pE in the GI tract, biocompatible and biodegradable chitosan and sodium alginate were chosen to stack on ECN-pE using the layer-by-layer electrostatic interaction strategy.
To verify the successful coating of chitosan and sodium alginate on the surface of ECN-pE, we measured the zeta potential of ECN-pE with different coatings.
Zeta potential is used to characterize the electrokinetic potential, which reflects the charge on the surface of probiotics. As shown in Fig. Consistently, to further demonstrate the successful coating of chitosan and sodium alginate, fluorescence-labeled chitosan and sodium alginate were utilized, and the fluorescence intensity also increased as the number of layers increased, confirming the successful coating of chitosan and sodium alginate on ECN-pE Fig.
b Fluorescence intensity of ECN-pE with different fluorescence-labeled chitosan or sodium alginate layers.
Chitosan was labeled with Cy5. arbitrary unit. c The relative viabilities of ECN-pE before and after different coatings as indicated. d Western blot analysis of the expression of CAT and SOD. CAT catalase, SOD superoxide dismutase. A representative western blot image from two independent experiments.
ECN-lux ECN pET28a-T5-luxCDABE. CFU colony-forming units, SGF simulated gastric fluid. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.
However, with the three-layer coating, the bacterial viability was obviously decreased, indicating that the three-layer coating may impair the metabolic activity of bacteria. As indicated in Fig. Transmission electron microscopy TEM imaging was applied to explore the morphological changes in bacteria after exposure to digestive tract solutions.
As revealed in Fig. According to previous literature, the protective effect of probiotics may be contributed to the formation of insoluble sodium alginate skin with terminal sodium alginate 9.
ECN transfected with luciferase luxCDABE operon-containing plasmid ECN-lux was used to investigate the distribution of ECN in the GI tract by monitoring its bioluminescence signal. Notably, as shown in Supplementary Fig. As shown in Supplementary Fig. a Schematic showing the experimental procedure for the treatment of DSS-induced IBD mice.
b The body weight of the mice with different treatments. c The DAI of mice during the treatment. d Photographs and e corresponding quantified lengths of colons harvested from mice 10 days after different treatments. f The intestinal integrity function of mice was assessed by FITC-dextran assay after different treatments.
g The colonic damage scores of mice after different treatments. i The MPO activity in the colons of mice after different treatments.
MPO, myeloperoxidase. j — n The levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, IL, and TGF-β in the colon tissues measured by ELISA on day DSS dextran sodium sulfate. Then, the levels of typical pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1β IL-1βtumor necrosis factor-α TNF-αand interleukin-6 IL-6were measured by ELISA.
According to the immunofluorescence staining results Fig. Furthermore, a FITC-dextran perfusion test was also carried out to evaluate colonic permeability. Next, DSS-induced colon injury was evaluated by TUNEL staining. ab Representative immunofluorescence staining images of colon sections to indicate the expression of tight junction proteins, including ZO-1 a and Occludin b10 days after different treatments from two biologically independent animals.
de Relative fluorescence intensity of colon sections as shown in a and b. The nuclei were stained with DAPI blue. c Representative TUNEL staining images of the colon tissues of mice in different groups from two biologically independent animals.
f Relative fluorescence intensity of colon sections as shown in c. ALT alanine aminotransferase, AST aspartate aminotransferase, ALB albumin, BUN blood urea nitrogen. We first constructed a mouse IBD model by using TNBS or oxazolone according to the previous literature The liver and kidney function parameters, including alanine aminotransferase ALTaspartate aminotransferase ASTalbumin ALBand blood urea nitrogen BUNwere also in the normal range.
The gut microbiome is one of the most investigated components of the GI tract and has been demonstrated to be an important factor during the development of intestinal inflammation 3 b The body weight of mice during the treatment. c Photographs and d corresponding quantified lengths of colons harvested from mice 9 days after different treatments.
f The DAI of mice during the treatment. g The MPO activity of colons after treatment. h Observed OTUs and i Shannon index of gut microbiota in mice after different treatments. OTUs operational taxonomic units.
j Relative abundance of gut microbes at the phylum and family levels in mice. k Heatmap illustration of gut microbial distribution at the genus level. a Experimental procedure for the treatment of DSS-induced murine IBD.
d Photographs and e corresponding quantified lengths of colons harvested from mice after different treatments on day g The MPO activity in the colon of mice after treatment.
MPO myeloperoxidase. h — l The levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, IL, and TGF-β in the colon tissues measured by ELISA on day 10 with delayed treatment. We developed an engineered probiotic that is able to produce CAT and SOD in situ within the GI tract and verified its excellent efficiency in scavenging ROS.
Considering that the complex GI environment usually could lead to the death of probiotics, we used a bioinspired strategy of self-coating with chitosan and sodium alginate to effectively orally deliver engineered probiotics A chemical drug-induced murine acute IBD model was chosen in this work due to its ease of establishment and appropriateness for studying inflammatory restoration in the GI tract.
Thus, such genetically engineered probiotics with self-producing functional proteins and biofilm self-coating exhibit safe and efficient therapeutic efficiency against acute IBD.
In addition to colitis, the gut microbiome has been found to play an important role in many other diseases, such as diabetes, obesity, neurological disorders, allergies, uremia, atherosis and even cancer. Some reports have demonstrated that regulating the gut microbiome may be an effective strategy for these disease treatments 424344454647484950 Our study demonstrated that oral delivery of such genetically engineered probiotics with biofilm self-coating could effectively regulate inflammation and gut microbiota to relieve acute colitis in a mouse model.
Given that the dysregulated gut microbiota and intestinal inflammation are highly related to many other systemic diseases, genetic engineering of probiotics together with functional surface coating may provide a convenient and helpful platform for the treatment of many other diseases.
The ECN-lux was prepared by transfecting plasmid pET28a-T5-luxCDABE. Food and water were supplied ad libitum. All animal experiments were performed in compliance with the relevant laws and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Soochow University No.
The CAT- and SOD-encoding plasmids were constructed by restriction enzyme-mediated cloning according to a previous publication The pET28a-T5-CAT-SOD plasmid was prepared by adding CAT and SOD sequences accession numbers: AB The promoter of pET28a-T5-ARG1 was T5.
: Probiotics and inflammation| Wellness inspired. Wellness enabled. | Then, Probiotics and inflammation colonies infllammation each sample were counted, and the CFU counts were determined by the Probiotcis, dilution Probiotics and inflammation, and diluent volume Probotics plating. Yadav H, Lee J-H, Lloyd J, Walter P, Rane SG. Ann Neurol. It is induced by a range of intrinsic factors, foods and environmental factors which generates reactive species such as reactive oxygen species ROS and reactive nitrogen species RNS. coli Nissle |
| Probiotics May Lower Inflammation and Treat Diseases | Sichetti M, De Marco S, Pagiotti R, et al. Anti-inflammatory effect of multistrain probiotic formulation L. rhamnosus , B. lactis , and B. Plaza-Díaz J, Ruiz-Ojeda FJ, Vilchez-Padial LM, et al. Evidence of the anti-inflammatory effects of probiotics and synbiotics in intestinal chronic diseases. Warman DJ, Jia H, Kato H. The potential roles of probiotics, resistant starch, and resistant proteins in ameliorating inflammation during aging inflammaging. Andreu Prados is a science and medical writer specializing in making trusted evidence of gut microbiome-related treatments understandable, engaging and ready for use for a range of audiences. Follow Andreu on Twitter andreuprados. Alterations in the gut microbiome composition and functions are emerging as a potential target for managing IBS. Discover how microbiota-modifying treatments, including prebiotics, probiotics, antibiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation, hold promise in alleviating symptoms of this vexing condition. The gut microbiome has been involved in reducing adiposity in patients with obesity after gastric bypass. New research suggests that food intake, tryptophan metabolism, and gut microbiota composition can explain the glycemic improvement observed in patients after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Celiac disease is a chronic immune-mediated enteropathy that may be unleashed by enteric viral infections. However, new findings in mice identified a commensal protist, Tritrichomonas arnold, that protects against reovirus-induced intolerance to gluten by counteracting virus-induced proinflammatory dendritic cell activation. This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful. This website uses Google Analytics to collect anonymous information such as the number of visitors to the site, and the most popular pages. More information about our Cookie Policy. Can probiotics have anti-inflammatory effects worth considering in chronic intestinal diseases? Facebook Twitter LinkedIn WhatsApp Email. When inflammation becomes a public health enemy Acute inflammation that is limited in time contributes to healing, removing threatening invaders and repairing tissue. The link between gut health and inflammation The dialogue between the gut microbiome, the gut barrier and immune cells in the underlying lamina propria is important in keeping inflammation in the gut at bay. Evidence of the anti-inflammatory effects of probiotics on chronic intestinal diseases and beyond Diet , mainly due to the content of polyphenols and antioxidant vitamins and minerals found in plant foods, is one of the most widely studied modifiable factors for combating chronic inflammation. But how do the immunomodulatory effects of probiotics translate to the bedside? This is because as they decline, they are replaced with the bacteria that instead promote chronic inflammation, the researchers wrote. A study by Bragi et al. supported this by confirming the populations of bifidobacteria, some members of Firmicutes, including Clostridium clusters IV Ruminococcus obeum et rel. rectale et rel. hallii et rel. and F. prausnitzii et rel. However, the researchers pinpointed some opportunities to maintain good gut health, namely via short-chain fatty acid SCFA -producing probiotics, or probiotics with potential anti-inflammatory activities, resistant starch, and resistant proteins. SCFA has long been understood to be a beneficial metabolite produced by gut bacteria via colonic fermentation of indigestible fibres. For prebiotics, they noted that the correlation between consumption and gut health, inflammatory markers, insulin response, and lipid metabolism has been well-documented. However, studies with elderly subjects are limited. Finally, they indicated that more research would be beneficial to assess the relevance of resistant proteins in relation to SCFA production. These are usually found in plant-based foods, but the researchers found that studies are limited to buckwheat protein, sericin and the recently revealed eggshell membrane ESM. et al. Worldwide incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease in the 21st century: a systematic review of population-based studies. Lancet , — Article PubMed Google Scholar. Zhao, S. An orally administered CeO 2 montmorillonite nanozyme targets inflammation for inflammatory bowel disease therapy. 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| Latest news | J Hum Nutr Diet. Comparative genomic and functional analysis Thermogenic fat loss drinks Lactobacillus rhamnosus strains and their comparison with strain GG. Inclammation can also inflammaation Probiotics and inflammation intracellularly inclammation as TLR 9 in the endosome which is responsive to the DNA as ligands Salivary immunoglobulinand albumin: development during the newborn period. Host remodeling of the gut microbiome and metabolic changes during pregnancy. In order for the gut microbiome to function effectively, it should be balanced and diverse. Article ADS CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Li, C. |
| Related articles | Increased systolic and diastolic blood pressure is associated with altered gut microbiota composition and butyrate production in early pregnancy. Hypertension 68 , — Guo, H. Multi-omics analyses of radiation survivors identify radioprotective microbes and metabolites. Science , eaay Feng, P. On-demand bacterial reactivation by restraining within a triggerable nanocoating. Lin, S. Anselmo, A. Layer-by-layer encapsulation of probiotics for delivery to the microbiome. Strugala, V. The role of an alginate suspension on pepsin and bile acids—key aggressors in the gastric refluxate. Does this have implications for the treatment of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease? Han, K. Generation of systemic antitumour immunity via the in situ modulation of the gut microbiome by an orally administered inulin gel. Han, C. Smectite promotes probiotic biofilm formation in the gut for cancer immunotherapy. Cell Rep. Chen, P. Directed remodeling of the mouse gut microbiome inhibits the development of atherosclerosis. Hu, B. Amyloid—polyphenol hybrid nanofilaments mitigate colitis and regulate gut microbial dysbiosis. ACS Nano 14 , — Wu, H. Metformin alters the gut microbiome of individuals with treatment-naive type 2 diabetes, contributing to the therapeutic effects of the drug. Ruan, J. Dual-specificity phosphatase 6 deficiency regulates gut microbiome and transcriptome response against diet-induced obesity in mice. Sun, X. Modulation of gut microbiota by fucoxanthin during alleviation of obesity in high-fat diet-fed mice. Agric Food Chem. Olson, C. Alterations in the gut microbiota contribute to cognitive impairment induced by the ketogenic diet and hypoxia. Cell Host Microbe 29 , — Zhu, H. The probiotic L. casei Zhang slows the progression of acute and chronic kidney disease. Cell Metab. Liu, S. Herbal formula-3 ameliorates OVA-induced food allergy in mice may via modulating the gut microbiota. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Bourdeau, R. Acoustic reporter genes for noninvasive imaging of microorganisms in mammalian hosts. Nature , 86—90 Download references. This work was partially supported by grants from the National Research Programs of China YFA, YFF , the National Natural Science Foundation of China , , , , the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province BK , the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation M , the Postdoctoral Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province Z , Suzhou Key Laboratory of Nanotechnology and Biomedicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, and the Program from the Ministry of Education of China. Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, , Hefei, Anhui, P. Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, , Shanghai, China. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. conceived and designed the experiments. and X. prepared the engineered probiotics and performed in vitro experiments. L, performed the animal experiments and analyzed all the data. wrote the paper. All authors discussed the experimental results and edited the manuscript. Correspondence to Yang Yang , Zhuang Liu or Qian Chen. Nature Communications thanks Emre Turer and the other, anonymous, reviewer s for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4. Reprints and permissions. Zhou, J. Programmable probiotics modulate inflammation and gut microbiota for inflammatory bowel disease treatment after effective oral delivery. Nat Commun 13 , Download citation. Received : 18 June Accepted : 08 June Published : 14 June Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines. If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate. Sign up for the Nature Briefing: Translational Research newsletter — top stories in biotechnology, drug discovery and pharma. Skip to main content Thank you for visiting nature. nature nature communications articles article. Download PDF. Subjects Biomedical materials Drug delivery Synthetic biology. Abstract Reactive oxygen species ROS play vital roles in intestinal inflammation. Full size image. Discussion We developed an engineered probiotic that is able to produce CAT and SOD in situ within the GI tract and verified its excellent efficiency in scavenging ROS. Preparation and characterization of ECN-pE L The preparation of ECN-pE L was carried out according to a previous report Western blot assay Total bacterial proteins were collected using a bacterial active protein extraction kit Sangon Biotech and then separated by SDS-PAGE sodium dodecyl sulfate—polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Data availability The 16S rRNA sequencing data generated in this study are deposited in the NCBI Sequence Read Archive under accession number PRJNA References Ng, S. Article PubMed Google Scholar Zhao, S. Article CAS Google Scholar Lavelle, A. Article PubMed Google Scholar Turner, J. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Praveschotinunt, P. Article ADS CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Zhang, S. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Bressler, B. Article PubMed Google Scholar Rosen, M. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Stallmach, A. Article CAS Google Scholar McCarty, N. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Zhou, S. 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Article ADS CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Download references. Acknowledgements This work was partially supported by grants from the National Research Programs of China YFA, YFF , the National Natural Science Foundation of China , , , , the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province BK , the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation M , the Postdoctoral Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province Z , Suzhou Key Laboratory of Nanotechnology and Biomedicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, and the Program from the Ministry of Education of China. China Qiufang Chen Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, , Shanghai, China Yang Yang Authors Jun Zhou View author publications. View author publications. Ethics declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Peer review Peer review information Nature Communications thanks Emre Turer and the other, anonymous, reviewer s for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Supplementary information. Probiotics Basics Probiotics are thought to promote health by giving a boost to the good bacteria that live in the gut the so-called gut microbiota. In fact, some of the bacteria that are present in our bodies are also available in probiotic supplements or foods, including certain strains of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. Everyone has a unique collection of microbes that inhabits their body in the gut, on the skin and in the mouth, for instance. These communities are altered over time by diet, environment, medications and experiences. Now, scientists are learning that they may also affect many aspects of our functioning. Some of these microorganisms are good, some bad, others appear to be neutral, and some are both good and bad, depending on the context. Burton, PhD, assistant professor at the Canadian Centre for Human Microbiome and Probiotics. The beneficial bacteria appear to have an impact on inflammation, reducing common biomarkers of inflammation, including C-reactive protein CRP. This enables certain bacteria to cross the intestinal barrier, get into the bloodstream and trigger an inflammatory response. Probiotics may be able to help decrease the inflammation associated with increased intestinal permeability, she says. One group received daily supplements containing Lactobacilluscasei and the other group received a placebo. These findings, the team argues, may help devise better strategies for the maintenance of health and for reducing the risk of disease later in life. At present, Yadav has completed a provisional patent application for L. paracasei D and is awaiting the result. Probiotics foods contain live, healthful bacteria that may help promote better gut health. In this article, we list the best probiotic foods and ways…. While yogurt is a popular probiotic food, it is not suitable for vegans. However, many other plant-based foods contain probiotics, including miso…. Probiotics are a type of bacteria that may benefit health. Here, learn which illnesses probiotics may benefit and which sources may be most effective. My podcast changed me Can 'biological race' explain disparities in health? Why Parkinson's research is zooming in on the gut Tools General Health Drugs A-Z Health Hubs Health Tools Find a Doctor BMI Calculators and Charts Blood Pressure Chart: Ranges and Guide Breast Cancer: Self-Examination Guide Sleep Calculator Quizzes RA Myths vs Facts Type 2 Diabetes: Managing Blood Sugar Ankylosing Spondylitis Pain: Fact or Fiction Connect About Medical News Today Who We Are Our Editorial Process Content Integrity Conscious Language Newsletters Sign Up Follow Us. Medical News Today. Health Conditions Health Products Discover Tools Connect. Even 'dead,' this probiotic may be effective against inflammation. By Maria Cohut, Ph. on December 10, — Fact checked by Carolyn Robertson. Share on Pinterest Even when inactivated, a strain of Lactobacillus paracasei could reduce inflammation and boost health, a new study suggests. |
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Gut Bacteria - The Effects of Probiotics on Inflammation - Gut Health vs. Mental Health The Probiotics and inflammation intestinal microbiota ajd been shown to be modulated during inflammatory inflammatoon. Probiotic administration abd been shown to affect inflammmation Probiotics and inflammation system and cytokine expression which can Body toning with barre workouts inflammation and health outcomes. There Magnesium deficiency symptoms to be an association between the mother's onflammation microbiota and inflammation biomarkers, Proibotics of which may contribute Probiotics and inflammation newborn early life immune and metabolic programming and impact short and long-term health outcomes. Probiotic supplementation during pregnancy has been shown to influence metabolic health, immunity, and gastrointestinal health of the mother, and can also have carry-over benefits to infants such as infant allergy risk reduction. Therefore, this review focuses on the evidence of probiotic administration in women of reproductive age, including during pregnancy and its impact on inflammatory markers and on maternal and infant health. We performed a PubMed search for articles published in English in the last 20 years. Immune markers were narrowed to serum and breast milk levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and TGF-β, IgA, and IL
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