Santacruz, Lucia, Antonio Jose Luis Arciniegas, Marcus Darrabie, Jose G. Mantilla, Rebecca M. Baron, Dawn E. Bowles, Rajashree Mishra, and Danny O. Santacruz L, Arciniegas AJL, Darrabie M, Mantilla JG, Baron RM, Bowles DE, et al.

Physiological reports. Santacruz, Lucia, et al. Epmc , doi Santacruz L, Arciniegas AJL, Darrabie M, Mantilla JG, Baron RM, Bowles DE, Mishra R, Jacobs DO. In addition, the values of e[La - ] were not altered after creatine supplementation. This result was expected as there is no evidence that creatine supplementation increases the glycogen content or glycolysis activity, corroborating the results of Doherty et al.

The eOXID also remained unchanged, probably due to the lack of improvement in performance. The main limitation of the present study was the lack of randomization of the tests.

Therefore, despite this being a study limitation, the lack of randomization seems not to have affected our findings. RdP collected and analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript.

LR collected the data. EM wrote the manuscript. GA, RB, and AZ conceived the idea, built the experimental design, and wrote the manuscript. This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior — Brasil CAPES — Finance Code The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The authors would like to thank the Prof. Bruno Gualano, Ph. Bemben, M. Creatine supplementation and exercise performance recent findings. Sports Med.

doi: PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Bertuzzi, R. Predicting MAOD using only a supramaximal exhaustive test. Brisola, G. Sodium bicarbonate supplementation improved MAOD but is not correlated with and m running performances: a double-blind, crossover, and placebo-controlled study.

Cohen, J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, 2nd Edn. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. de Poli, R.

Caffeine improved time to exhaustion but did not change alternative maximal accumulated oxygen deficit estimated during a single supramaximal running bout.

Sport Nutr. PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text. Di Prampero, P. The energetics of anaerobic muscle metabolism: a reappraisal of older and recent concepts. CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Doherty, M. Reproducibility of the maximum accumulated oxygen deficit and run time to exhaustion during short-distance running.

Sports Sci. Caffeine is ergogenic after supplementation of oral creatine monohydrate. Sports Exerc. Greenhaff, P. Effect of oral creatine supplementation on skeletal muscle phosphocreatine resynthesis. Gualano, B. Exploring the therapeutic role of creatine supplementation. Amino Acids 38, 31— Hall, M.

Creatine supplementation. Harris, R. Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation. CrossRef Full Text. Hill, D. Morning—evening differences in response to exhaustive severe-intensity exercise.

Howley, E. Criteria for maximal oxygen uptake: review and commentary. Hultman, E. Muscle creatine loading in men. Jacobs, I. Creatine ingestion increases anaerobic capacity and maximum accumulated oxygen deficit. Jones, A. Koo, T. A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research.

Medbø, J. Anaerobic energy release in working muscle during 30 s to 3 min of exhausting bicycling. Anaerobic capacity determined by maximal accumulated O2 deficit. Mesa, J.

Oral creatine supplementation and skeletal muscle metabolism in physical exercise. Miyagi, W. Effects of caffeine ingestion on anaerobic capacity in a single supramaximal cycling test. Anaerobic capacityestimated in a single supramaximal test in cycling: validity and reliability analysis.

Noordhof, D. The addition of Cr improved VT, but did not increase TWD. Therefore, 10 g of Cr per day for five days per week for four weeks does not seem to further augment maximal oxygen consumption, greater than HIIT alone; however, Cr supplementation may improve submaximal exercise performance.

Traditional endurance training has been shown to improve aerobic capacity, such as the ability to sustain a given submaximal workload for an extended period of time, or to produce a higher average power output over a fixed distance or time [ 1 , 2 ]. Physiological adaptations from training, resulting from an increase in mitochondrial density, include changes in skeletal muscle substrate utilization and improved respiratory control sensitivity [ 3 ].

High-intensity interval training HIIT is a time-efficient way to induce similar adaptations, such as increased maximal mitochondrial enzyme activity [ 4 ] and a reduction in glycogen utilization and lactate accumulation [ 5 , 6 ].

In addition, HIIT may be more effective than conventional endurance training at improving muscle buffering capacity [ 7 , 8 ]. HIIT consists of repeated bouts of short to moderate duration exercise completed at intensities greater than the anaerobic threshold, interspersed with brief periods of low-intensity or passive rest.

HIIT is designed to repeatedly stress the body, physiologically, resulting in chronic adaptations and improving metabolic and energy efficiency [ 9 , 10 ].

Helgerud et al. The velocity at which ventilatory threshold VT occurred increased as well, which may signify a higher training capacity and, therefore, should also represent an improvement in endurance performance.

It was determined during this study that different protocols of HIIT, matched for frequency and total work done, provided similar results [ 11 ]. In support, Burke et al. Similarly, an increase in VO 2PEAK and VT was found in three groups of well-trained cyclists following three different HIIT protocols of varying intensities and work-to-rest ratios [ 9 ].

Phosphocreatine PCr , a high-energy storage molecule within skeletal muscle, provides immediate replenishment of ATP during intense exercise [ 13 ].

Multiple HIIT bouts are designed to deplete PCr stores in the working skeletal muscle, reducing power output. It has been reported that it takes more than six minutes to fully recover depleted PCr stores after exercise-induced PCr depletion [ 14 ].

Therefore, if recovery intervals during HIIT bouts are less than six minutes, PCr may not be fully replenished, resulting in a reduced ability to meet the demands of cellular ATP resynthesis and a reduced performance [ 13 ].

Supplementing with creatine Cr has been demonstrated to effectively augment muscle phosphocreatine PCr stores [ 15 ]. It has been suggested that increases in skeletal muscle PCr concentration may improve muscle buffering capacity and moderate glycolysis [ 17 , 18 ].

In addition, Cr supplementation may increase the rate of PCr resynthesis between HIIT exercise bouts and enhance mitochondrial shuttling of ATP into the cytoplasm, providing significant physiological adaptations [ 15 , 16 ]. Current research suggests that Cr supplementation, when combined with training, has been shown to significantly augment performance [ 19 ].

Moreover, the combination of Cr supplementation and HIIT may lead to greater improvements in VO 2PEAK , VT, and TTE than previously reported with HIIT or Cr supplementation alone. While Cr is known to improve anaerobic performance, its use in aerobic performance has been under-researched.

To date, no one has examined the concurrent effects of Cr supplementation and HIIT. Therefore, we propose that Cr supplementation may increase training capacity during HIIT, resulting in improved endurance performance as measured by VO 2PEAK , VT, and TTE, beyond what has been demonstrated for HIIT alone.

The purpose of this study was to determine the combined effects of four weeks of HIIT and Cr supplementation on VO 2PEAK , VT, and TTE in recreationally active college-aged men. Forty-three recreationally active hours of regimented exercise per week college-aged men mean ± SD, Age: Participants were screened for health conditions that would have prevented them from participating in the study, including heart and joint conditions.

Any participants who had taken sports supplements, including any form of Creatine, in the three months prior to the beginning of the study were excluded. Participants kept a food diary, and none of the participants consumed a vegetarian diet.

Participants were asked not to change training or dietary habits for the duration of the study. This study was approved by the University's Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects and informed consent was obtained from each participant prior to enrollment.

A maximal graded exercise test GXT on a cycle ergometer Corival , Groningen, The Netherlands was completed by all participants to determine maximal oxygen consumption VO 2PEAK. Participants began pedaling at a cadence of revolutions per minute RPM at a workload of 20 watts W.

The workload increased 1 W every 3 seconds a total of 20 W every minute. This continued until the subject could no longer maintain RPM or until volitional exhaustion, despite verbal encouragement.

Respiratory gases were monitored and continuously analyzed with open-circuit spirometry using a calibrated metabolic cart True One ® , Parvo-Medics, Inc. Data were averaged over second intervals, with the highest second oxygen consumption and heart rate recorded as the peak oxygen consumption VO 2PEAK and maximum heart rate HRmax , respectively.

Time to exhaustion for the GXT VO 2PEAK TTE was recorded. In addition, ventilatory threshold VT was measured during this test. VT was determined from a plot of ventilation V E against VO 2 as described previously [ 20 ].

Two linear regression lines were fit to the lower and upper portions of the V E vs. VO 2 curve, before and after the break points, respectively. The intersection of these two lines was defined as VT.

Participants completed a warm-up consisting of a five-minute cycle at a workload of 50 W. Keeping a cadence of 70 RPM, they pedaled until volitional exhaustion. Time was recorded in seconds, and total work done TWD was reported in kilojoules, determined by multiplying the workload in watts and the time to exhaustion in seconds.

The test-retest intraclass correlation coefficient R was 0. A total of three testing sessions occurred throughout a nine-week period--familiarization week 1 , baseline week 4 , and post week 9.

Familiarization testing was implemented to reduce any learning effect--possibly influencing the dependent variables as well as the training intensity--from the initial VO 2PEAK testing.

Participants supplemented for a total of 30 days 10 days of familiarization period followed by an additional 20 days of supplementing and training at a dose of 10 g per day, taken in two doses--one dose 30 minutes prior to and one dose immediately following training.

Participants in the Cr group consumed 5 g of creatine citrate mixed with 15 g dextrose per packet Creatine Edge, FSI Nutrition, Omaha, NE , dissolved in ounces of water. Similarly, participants in the PL group consumed 20 g of dextrose per packet dissolved in ounces of water. Both drinks were identical in appearance and taste.

Training began at least hours following the TTE test. Participants were required to visit the lab five days per week, for six weeks, to perform the HIIT.

A two-week familiarization training period was implemented before taking baseline testing measurements. Due to the effectiveness of the training, and to the generally untrained population, a familiarization period was implemented to allow for all participants to quickly adapt to the high-intensity protocol.

Previous research has shown significant improvements in performance with just two weeks of HIIT [ 21 ]. Furthermore, in a previous study from our lab in which a familiarization period was not used, the large adaptations from training may have masked any effects from supplementation [ 22 ].

After the two-week familiarization period, participants re-tested their VO 2PEAK and TTE. Following baseline testing, participants completed four additional weeks of training, in which the intensities were re-evaluated based on baseline VO 2PEAK power output values.

Three of the five days per week of training consisted of training at progressively increasing workloads, determined as a percentage of the participant's baseline VO 2PEAK max workload.

One recovery day two days per week occurred between each of the three difficult training sessions. Each training session began with a five-minute warm up at 50 W, followed by a protocol of five sets of two-minute exercise bouts, with one minute of passive rest in between exercise bouts.

HIIT protocol. Represents the first two weeks of the HIIT protocol. Descriptive statistics were evaluated to determine group demographics. A mixed factorial ANOVA group [Cr vs. Pl vs. Con] × time [pre vs. If a significant interaction occurred, the statistical model was decomposed and the simple main effects were examined using separate one-way repeated measures ANOVAs for each group.

If the result was a simple main effect, Bonferroni post-hoc comparisons were performed among groups, while dependent-samples t-tests with Bonferroni corrections were performed across time. If no interactions occurred, the main effects were analyzed by collapsing across the non-interacting variables and analyzed in the same approach as described for the simple main effect.

Separate one-way ANOVAs indicated no differences between groups in any of the variables at baseline measurement. In addition, there was no change measured in the Con group over time in any of the variables. There was no change in BW from baseline to post measurement in the Cr A post hoc Bonferroni analysis indicated no difference between Cr and Pl Table 1.

There was no interaction and no main effect for time for either group. High-intensity interval training has been shown to be an effective method for improving endurance performance [ 7 , 12 , 23 — 26 ].

The results of the present study are in agreement with many studies demonstrating an increase in VO 2PEAK after HIIT [ 12 , 27 — 29 ].

In addition, time to exhaustion during the graded exercise test was also improved. However, few studies have examined the concurrent effects of HIIT with Cr supplementation on endurance performance.

The current study demonstrated no additional improvements in VO 2PEAK when combining Cr supplementation and HIIT. However, when measuring VT, improvements were only demonstrated in the Cr group.

Interestingly, in contrast to previous reports of significant increases in TWD with Cr supplementation or HIIT alone, no change in TWD was observed [ 5 , 28 , 30 — 33 ]. Endurance performance is commonly assessed using a measure of aerobic capacity, VO 2PEAK.

Short recovery periods between intense exercise bouts during HIIT may create a greater reliance on aerobic metabolism, due to the importance of aerobic metabolism in the removal of lactic acid and for the resynthesis of phosphocreatine [ 41 ]. HIIT may also induce up-regulation of glycolytic and oxidative enzymes, a possible mechanism influencing the improvements in VO 2PEAK [ 34 ].

In addition, an increase in stroke volume following HIIT [ 11 ] may contribute to an increase in VO 2PEAK. These results are in agreement with the few studies that have examined the effects of Cr supplementation on VO 2PEAK [ 30 , 42 — 44 ].

Cr has been shown to be effective in improving short-duration, intense activities, but few studies have examined the effects of Cr on longer duration, endurance-type activities. Due to the intensity and time duration two minutes of the interval work periods, it was hypothesized that Cr would provide for a greater training capacity, and, therefore, the Cr group would show greater improvements in the testing measurements.

McConell and colleagues [ 45 ] found that Cr improved the maintenance of energy balance in the muscle during intense aerobic exercise; however, performance was not improved, which is in agreement with the current study. Ventilatory threshold VT may be another useful predictor of endurance performance.

The VT has been suggested as an indicator of the ability of the cardiovascular system to adequately supply oxygen to the working muscles, preventing muscle anaerobisis [ 46 ]. Performing exercise at intensities greater than VT commonly result in an inadequate supply of oxygen to the working muscles, quickly leading to fatigue [ 47 ].

Therefore, improvements in VT may correspond to an augmented time to exhaustion and a greater threshold for fatigue.

Additionally, it has been proposed that training at intensities greater than VT, much like the HIIT protocol of the current study, may enhance the efficiency of the body to supply oxygen to the working muscles i.

Furthermore, a concomitant rise in muscle lactate levels and a drop in pH at high intensities of exercise may signal arterial chemoreceptors, altering ventilatory regulating mechanisms. Therefore, improvements in cardiovascular fitness may also coincide with a decrease in lactate accumulation resulting in an improvement in VT.

The increased VT in the Cr group is in agreement with previous studies that demonstrated improved VT following Cr supplementation but without training [ 30 , 42 , 44 ].

Future studies, however, are needed to validate our results.

We can look at the kinetics of the increase in VO2 with exercise and the decrease in VO2 after exercise. You can see here that as VO2 increases up to the steady-state level, there is a lag in oxygen uptake.

This is referred to as an oxygen deficit. Interestingly, oxygen deficit, or the maximal oxygen deficit, has been used as a marker of anaerobic capacity in an applied sport setting. During exercise, as long as that exercise continues, there is a given oxygen uptake.

And this may include several hours, depending on how hard and how long the exercise is. You could imagine that it might be due to a lag in oxygen delivery. It takes some time for the cardiac output, for the muscle blood flow to increase, and for the oxygen to diffuse into the skeletal muscle tissue.

Alternatively, oxygen delivery might increase quite quickly, and the lag might be due to sluggishness in mitochondrial respiration. A number of experiments over the years have tried to identify, is it oxygen delivery, is it oxygen utilization?

And depending on the exercise intensity and the situations of those experiments results have been obtained in support or against either mechanism. So probably both continue to contribute to some extent.

During exercise, as I said, at a given exercise intensity, there is an oxygen requirement. And during prolonged exercise, there is a general upward drift in VO2. What mechanisms might contribute to this increase in VO2?

Well, most of it is due to changes within the active muscles themselves. Some of the factors, some of the changes, in skeletal muscle that contribute to that include recruitment of lower efficiency type two fibers, changes in the efficiency of ATP production to oxygen consumption, an increase in muscle temperature, an increased reliance on free fatty acid metabolism, which tends to have a higher oxygen requirement, and elevated catecholamines, which can impact on metabolism.

Factors outside the muscle which could contribute to this increased oxygen consumption include an increased oxygen requirement of the ventilatory muscles and of the heart as they increase their activity during prolonged exercise.

Have a look at the post-exercise period. There are a number of processes going on that are thought to contribute to the maintenance of a slightly higher VO2 during recovery. In the short to medium term after exercise, heart rate and ventilation will remain slightly elevated, and that will increase the oxygen requirement.

There will be an increase in temperature which is maintained for some time after exercise, and that might also contribute to a slight increase in VO2. Also, mitochondrial uncoupling, or again, a change in the ATP to VO2 ratio might contribute to a need for higher oxygen uptake.

And the synthesis of key proteins that might contribute to the adaptive response to exercise. Edge J, Bishop D, Goodman C, Dawson B: Effects of high- and moderate-intensity training on metabolism and repeated sprints.

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Jager R, Metzger J, Lautmann K, Shushakov V, Purpura M, Geiss KR, Maassen N: The effects of creatine pyruvate and creatine citrate on performance during high intensity exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. Download references. Department of Health and Exercise Science, University of Oklahoma, Huston Huffman Center, Asp Avenue, Norman, OK, , USA.

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Jeffrey R Stout. JG, AS, KK and DF contributed in writing and editing the manuscript along with concept and design, data acquisition, and data analysis and interpretation.

JM, TB, JC, and JS contributed in writing and editing the manuscript, as well as concept and design. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. Jennifer L Graef, Abbie E Smith, Kristina L Kendall, David H Fukuda, Jordan R Moon, Travis W Beck, Joel T Cramer and Jeffrey R Stout contributed equally to this work.

Open Access This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. Reprints and permissions. Graef, J. et al. The effects of four weeks of creatine supplementation and high-intensity interval training on cardiorespiratory fitness: a randomized controlled trial. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 6 , 18 Download citation.

Received : 11 June Accepted : 12 November Published : 12 November Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search all BMC articles Search. Download PDF. Download ePub. Abstract Background High-intensity interval training has been shown to be a time-efficient way to induce physiological adaptations similar to those of traditional endurance training.

Methods Forty-three recreationally active men completed a graded exercise test to determine VO 2PEAK , VO 2PEAK TTE, and VT. Results Significant improvements in VO 2PEAK and VO 2PEAK TTE occurred in both training groups. Conclusion In conclusion, HIIT is an effective and time-efficient way to improve maximal endurance performance.

Background Traditional endurance training has been shown to improve aerobic capacity, such as the ability to sustain a given submaximal workload for an extended period of time, or to produce a higher average power output over a fixed distance or time [ 1 , 2 ].

Methods Forty-three recreationally active hours of regimented exercise per week college-aged men mean ± SD, Age: Determination of VO 2PEAK , ventilatory threshold, and total work done A maximal graded exercise test GXT on a cycle ergometer Corival , Groningen, The Netherlands was completed by all participants to determine maximal oxygen consumption VO 2PEAK.

High-intensity interval training HIIT Training began at least hours following the TTE test. Figure 1. Full size image. Results Separate one-way ANOVAs indicated no differences between groups in any of the variables at baseline measurement.

Body Weight BW There was no change in BW from baseline to post measurement in the Cr Table 1 Mean ± SD of maximal oxygen consumption VO 2PEAK , time to exhaustion VO 2PEAK TTE , and ventilatory threshold VT at baseline and following four weeks of treatment Full size table.

Figure 2. Effect of Creatine and HIIT on VT. Percent change in VT over time for each group. Discussion High-intensity interval training has been shown to be an effective method for improving endurance performance [ 7 , 12 , 23 — 26 ]. Conclusion In conclusion, the current study supports previous evidence that HIIT is an efficient way to induce cardiorespiratory improvements [ 7 , 12 , 23 — 26 ].

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Overview Fingerprint. Abstract Following the onset of moderate aerobic exercise, the rate of oxygen consumption J o rises monoexponentially toward the new steady state with a time constant τ in the vicinity of 30 s. Keywords Creatine kinase Hexokinase Mitochondrial resistance.

ASJC Scopus subject areas Physiology Cell Biology. Access to Document Link to publication in Scopus. Fingerprint Dive into the research topics of 'Linear relation between time constant of oxygen uptake kinetics, total creatine, and mitochondrial content in vitro'.

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