Current research suggests that dietary protein intake required to support metabolic adaptation, repair, remodeling, and protein turnover generally ranges from 1.

Each athlete is going to require a specific mix of carbs, protein, and fat to achieve optimal performance, so all we can do is give you guidelines that you can then tweak based on how you feel and how you perform.

Some people perform better with a higher carb intake, while others perform best with low to moderate carb intake. Some athletes perform best eating three meals per day, while others require six or more to get in the calories and hit PRs of stellar practice runs.

Shea went from training athletes in his basement, to being a head college strength and conditioning coach to then become the head strength and conditioning coach of the Toronto Argonauts in the CFL.

Your email address will not be published. The building blocks of nutrition. Nutrition Timing. Post-exercise food consumption. Generally speaking, how long you have to reload your body with nutrients depends on 4 key factors [ 1 ]: How depleted glycogen stores are The fact of the matter is, the more you deplete your glycogen stores, the more carbs and time you need to replenish them.

The extent of muscle damage Eccentric exercises, heavy weight lifting, or plyometric training causes damage to muscle fibres, and glucose is needed for the repair process. Amount and timing of carbs Because the function of consuming carbs post-workout or even pre-workout is to replenish glycogen stores, the amount you eat will dictate how fast stores are replaced.

Training experience As training experience and fitness levels improve, your abilities to refuel do, too. What To Eat. How much should I be eating? The takeaway.

References expand. Bean, A. The Complete Guide to Sports Nutrition Complete Guides 7th ed. Bloomsbury Sport. Nutritional Strategies to Promote Postexercise Recovery.

International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism , 20 6 , — Sports Medicine , 45 S1 , 33— Timing of postexercise protein intake is important for muscle hypertrophy with resistance training in elderly humans.

The Journal of Physiology , 1 , — Carbohydrate Dependence During Prolonged, Intense Endurance Exercise. Sports Medicine , 45 S1 , 5— A high carbohydrate diet remains the evidence based choice for elite athletes to optimise performance.

The Journal of Physiology , 9 , Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: effect of time of carbohydrate ingestion. Journal of Applied Physiology , 64 4 , — High-Quality Carbohydrates and Physical Performance. Nutrition Today , 53 1 , 35— Ingested protein dose response of muscle and albumin protein synthesis after resistance exercise in young men.

The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 89 1 , — Zudem ist der Wettkampfplan oft dicht gedrängt, und die Athleten müssen zwischen den Spielen reisen und sich gleichzeitig erholen.

Daher ist es entscheidend, die Ernährungsstrategien sowohl während des Trainings als auch auf Reisen oder im Wettkampf zu optimieren. Dieser Reviewartikel fasst verschiedene Aspekte zusammen, die für die Entwicklung einer Ernährungsstrategie in einem Club wichtig sind.

Zuerst wird zusammengefasst, wie das medizinische und sportwissenschaftliche Team die richtigen Ernährungsstrategien zur Optimierung der Trainingsanpassung und Erholung bereitstellen kann.

Ausserdem umfasst er Aspekte zur Ernährung von Sportlerinnen, Jugendlichen und reisenden Sportlern sowie während der Rehabilitation von Verletzungen.

Zusätzlich befasst sich der Artikel mit der Analyse der Körperzusammensetzung von Athleten. Die Wahl des richtigen Zeitpunkts der Saison zusammen mit einer zuverlässigen, validen sowie reliablen Methode unter standardisierten Bedingungen ist zentral.

Ebenfalls müssen Sportler über das Risiko und den Nutzen der Verwendung von Nahrungsergänzungsmitteln informiert werden. Dies reduziert das Risiko eines positiven Dopingtests, und die Verwendung unangemessener und unwirksamer Supplemente wird vermieden. Team sports performance is very complex, as a player needs to present different physiological and non-physiological skills to perform at its best.

Endurance as well as speed and repeated or intermittent sprinting are just a few of those physiological aspects Figure 1 [1,2]. Tactical and skill-based performance may determine, whether the team will win the game [3].

Training sessions involve endurance, sprint or intermittent sprint training sessions, technical e. dribbling, shooting, etc. or tactical and resistance training. Therefore, team sports performance is highly demanding in terms of intensity, volume and impact on muscle, bone and tendons [4].

It also requires attention and concentration to optimize cognitive function. During the competition period, players might also travel to away games or playing two or more games per week. In a tournament, the situation becomes even more intense adding for example media work.

Therefore, adapting the fueling requirements to the special needs of the environmental e. heat, humidity and individual conditions e. female or youth athlete, religion, culture, vegetarian or vegan diet, etc. is essential. This narrative review describes the different nutritional aspects influencing performance in team sports and translates the knowledge into practical applications.

The activity level between players varies depending on the type of sport, training quantity and quality, body mass as well as playing position. In soccer, EI during a match day was higher compared to a normal training day vs. During a match, distance covered, speed, number of sprints and total intensity showed a high variability depending on playing position as well as type of sport.

The energy expenditure of male outfield football players during a match has been estimated at — kcal [5]. Research on female players is sparse, but available evidence highlights that they cover approximately the same average total distance as their male counterparts, however at a lower average speed, which lowers the exercise energy expenditure [7].

Carbohydrate CHO ingestion before and during a game seemed to have the greatest impact in intermittent sports performance [8] Table 1. To avoid or minimize gastrointestinal side effects during games, all match nutrition strategies should be practiced during training sessions to develop individual protocols [7.

Moreover, rinsing the mouth with CHO-solution during breaks could potentially enhance performance when CHO consumption is limited by gastrointestinal concerns [9]. Performance enhancing supplements such as caffeine or creatine display strong scientific evidence Table 2 , but also a high individual variability [7,10].

Athletes should be educated on the risks and benefits of supplements before its application. Third-party testing programs for supplements e. Kölner­liste, Informed Sports, NSF allows players to make a safe choice regarding contamination with prohibited substances [11].

Two examples of a nutrition plan during a training and a game day are provided in Table 3. During the winter months, most Swiss athletes and especially athletes training indoors have a vitamin D deficiency [12]. As vitamin D is linked to bone health, neuromuscular and immune function, monitoring of serum vitamin D is recommended [13].

Iron is closely linked to oxygen-transport capacity and, therefore, an iron deficiency might negatively influence performance [10]. Iron status should be regularly monitored. If needed, supplementation must be prescribed by a sports physician and should meet specific health goals.

The risk for hypohydration is the greatest in soccer and rugby [15]. Sweat rate ranged in all team sports between 0. It needs to be mentioned, that sweat rate and the risk for hypohydration is influenced by the limited fluid intake or drinking availability, the frequent high intensity efforts and different environmental conditions e.

heat, clothing and body protection [15]. Nuccio et al. However, it seems likely, that cognitive performance as well as sport-specific skills are becoming more impaired with a higher fluid loss e.

Such large losses of fluid have been rarely reported in team sports. Nevertheless, it would be valuable to monitor sweat rate and fluid loss Figure 2 by measuring pre- and post-session body mass and by recording of fluid intake in order to define an individual drinking strategy [6].

Hydration status should be monitored by determination of urine specific gravity Table 4. Together with the urine color, this provides a practical tool to enhance knowledge and awareness of a sufficient hydration status.

The measurements could be repeated on a regular basis during training sessions as well as during tournaments in humid and hot conditions to ensure sufficient fluid intake and prevent hypohydration, overdrinking and hyponatremia. Athletes should be encouraged to start exercise well hydrated and to make use of drinking opportunities during training and games [16].

It seems reasonable to remind players to drink at sidelines e. soccer , on the bench e. ice hockey and during quarter or halfway breaks [17]. Body composition and other anthropometric characteristics e. height, body mass might depend on the type of sport and playing position [7].

Whereas an endurance-based field athlete e. soccer presents himself much leaner, a strength-based athlete e. rugby shows a high amount of fat-free mass. Thus, comparing athletes within different sports or within different playing positions is not reasonable. Furthermore, the variability of body mass and body composition throughout a sporting year or career needs to be taken into consideration [18].

Therefore, monitoring body composition Figure 2, Table 4 over different training phases e. off-, pre- and on-season or over a career are helpful to track individual changes [7]. This is especially valuable during nutritional interventions e. during weight loss or after a major injury e.

to monitor fat-free mass. Athletes are very sensitive to measurements concerning body mass. Hence, choosing an adequate method to monitor minor changes is important. Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry DXA is a reliable and valid method with the least error, but it is expensive with limited use [18,19].

Moreover, a standardization of the procedure regarding the device, software, technician, hydration and nutritional status [20] is needed to provide a reliable measurement.

An easier way to track body composition in the field is by skinfold measurements using a caliper [21], though this method requires some expertise and the amount of fat-free mass is indirectly estimated. Nevertheless, tracking the sum of skinfold over time is a cost-effective way to monitor fluctuations in body composition.

Domestic and international travel for games and training camps is happening on a regular basis in elite teams. Limited food options may not provide the required nutrient intake. It is important to pack non-perishable food items and fluids [22].

On destination, buffet-style food service is the most suitable and convenient to nourish athletes on an individual basis. The menu should be adapted to the nutritional requirements, cultural considerations, special needs i.

allergies, intolerances and diets e. vegetarian, vegan, cultural, religious of the athletes [23]. The athletes should be educated on their nutritional goals and know how to choose food accordingly.

It can be valuable to consult a sports dietitian for specific advice or to develop a nutritional strategy Table 4, Figure 2 for the whole team travelling [23]. Due to altered conditions e. The intake of probiotics two weeks before and during a trip appears to have a marginal protective role in reducing the incidence and severity of travel-specific problems [23].

Nutritional support is key to ensure that junior players can meet the requirements for their daily school routine, training, games, growth, maturity, health and recovery.

Mostly, energy demands are higher compared to adults due to growth and changes in body composition. A severe chronic energy deficit may impair growth and maturity, develop menstrual irregularities and enhance injury and illness risk [7,25].

Players should be monitored periodically to examine changes in height-for-weight, weight-for-age, BMI-for-age and body composition [7]. Therefore, daily CHO recommendations by body mass are similar to adult players [25].

Additional CHO intake during trainings and games may be beneficial [7]. Also, be sure not to confuse sports drinks such as Gatorade with "energy" drinks such as Red Bull and similar beverages. Stick with whole food options as much as possible as opposed to highly processed foods.

Without adequate calories from the healthiest food sources, you will struggle to achieve your performance goals. Plan a nutritious meal by choosing at least one food from each category.

Healthy fat. Adequate hydration is a key element in sports performance. Most athletes benefit from developing a personal hydration plan. A general rule for training is to consume a minimum:. Four to six ounces of fluid every 15 minutes of exercise.

To properly assess, weigh yourself immediately prior to and after a workout. For every pound of weight lost, replace with 16 ounces of fluid. Best hydration choices include water, low-fat milk or percent juice.

Sports beverages are best reserved for competition, where quick hydration and electrolyte replacement are necessary. There are a few golden rules when it comes to eating on game day:.

It happens the days, weeks, and months leading up to the competition. Peak performance during competition means eating nutritious food while traveling. Relying on the concession stand for food during competition is an almost certain failure.

Players and parents should prepare by packing a variety of food and beverages. Choose energy-packed foods such as whole grain crackers with low-fat cheese, tortilla wraps with veggies and lean meat, hard-boiled eggs, vegetable or bean soups, small boxes of non-sugary cereal, fresh fruit, mini-whole wheat bagels with peanut butter, pita bread with hummus or pasta with grilled chicken.

Fibrous carbohydrates can be beneficial as these tend to cause GI disturbances. UW School of Medicine and Public Health.

This process is critical in creating the training adaptations we are looking for in speed development training, and protein itself can serve as a trigger for those metabolic adaptations we seek. Like carbohydrates and dietary fats , protein has a direct effect on body composition—not only through its contribution to total energy intake but also in the maintenance of lean body mass on a hypocaloric diet.

If body composition changes are warranted to optimize performance remember, body comp and body weight do not accurately predict performance , keeping protein levels higher can help maintain lean mass while in a caloric deficit to see body fat reductions.

Recommendations for protein intake when reducing total calories to make body composition changes range from 2. Daily protein intake for athletes is currently set at 1. Most literature supports an ideal range of 1. Protein timing throughout the day is important to optimize MPS.

The majority of protein intake in regard to training is focused in the post-window. However, pre-training protein consumption can aid in satiety to lower the physiological hunger experienced during training and competition.

During training, protein consumption can help spare amino acids from being oxidized, leaving them available for MPS. The total protein content of this feeding should be around. It is recommended that this dose is then repeated about every 3—5 hours throughout the day to optimize MPS and recovery.

Intakes of more than 40 grams of protein have not been shown to further improve MPS but may be warranted for larger athletes, individuals on a hypocaloric diet, or those with higher total daily protein needs. A good goal for most athletes is to consume doses of 20—40 grams of protein every 3—4 hours while awake to optimize MPS and hit total daily protein intake needs.

Protein intake in the post-training window can also lower carbohydrate needs to achieve the same glycogen resynthesis.

Research supports that an intake of. This is yet another reason to consume protein in the post-training window and throughout the day, especially for an athlete who struggles to meet higher carbohydrate needs post-training. Hydration has multiple impacts on athletic performance, including the role of electrolytes in muscular contraction, injury prevention, and maintenance of electrolyte balance in the body.

Pre-exercise hypohydration can increase muscle strength and power, and too great of a loss of fluids and electrolytes can impair performance. At these levels, we can begin to see alterations to CNS and metabolic function due to hypovolemia and increased glycogen use leaving less fuel for glycolysis.

The focus post-training should then be on rehydrating and replacing lost fluids and electrolytes. Sweat losses per hour can range from. For every kilogram lost during training, an athlete needs about 1—1.

The general recommendation is to consume. As mentioned above, this could also be used to provide glucose for glycogen sparing and as a mouth rinse. The average sodium loss per liter of sweat is 1 gram or 1, milligrams as mentioned above, this varies significantly between athletes.

Replenishing these losses post-training and competition is vital to help the body retain the fluids consumed, restoring optimal plasma volume and levels of extracellular fluids. Any athlete should aim to prevent micronutrient deficiencies through a balanced intake that meets total energy, macro, and micronutrient needs.

And while all micronutrients have an indirect role in supporting energy production—and thus performance—there are three we should be extra aware of as they pertain to muscular function and speed:.

Calcium aids in the regulation of muscular contraction and nerve conduction. As we know, calcium facilitates the myosin and actin interaction within the muscle cell. It is then, when calcium is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, that the muscle relaxes. Calcium is also an important mineral in bone health along with vitamin D and phosphorus , which can help prevent bone injury.

It is important to note that high levels of calcium in the blood can cause muscle weakness, and supplements should be used under the direction of a physician or dietitian.

Vitamin D has a role in bone health aiding in calcium and phosphorus absorption and playing a biomolecular role in mediating the metabolic functions of the muscle.

Athletes living above the 35th parallel, or those who train and compete indoors, are at the highest risk of deficiency. Supplementation may be warranted in amounts of 2,—5, IUs daily as indicated by lab work. We know iron deficiency, with or without anemia, reduces muscular function and work capacity, as maximal oxygen uptake will be limited.

Elite athletes, especially females, can be at risk of developing iron deficiency. Where opinions differ is on the use and benefit of antioxidant supplements like tart cherry juice. I do not recommend that my athletes use these antioxidant supplements in the off-season or pre-season when our goal is adaptation, as these supplements could negatively influence it.

Instead, they should be used during the season, potentially in the evening before competition or key training sessions. The role of supplementation in positively impacting speed performance lies in providing energy system fuel, preventing acid-base disturbances, and reducing perceptions of fatigue.

There are four supplements I lean on to help optimize sprint performance:. Supplements should be third-party tested with effectiveness and dosages backed by research. Creatine is one of the most studied and safest supplements on the market and, in my opinion, the most impactful on performance.

Creatine has been shown to have numerous benefits, but for the purposes of this article, we primarily see performance improvements in repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise with short recovery periods.

Based on our earlier discussion of surrounding energy systems, we know phosphocreatine is the substrate used in the ATP-CP, our main energy system utilized in maximal sprints. Creatine phosphate provides a rapid source of phosphate to resynthesis ADP to ATP.

On an omnivorous diet, most individuals will get between 1 and 2 grams of creatine daily found in meat, fish, and eggs. Supplementation is then recommended to saturate muscular stores. Creatine monohydrate is highly bioavailable and is what I recommend to the athletes I work with.

Creatine can be taken using a loading phase of 20—25 grams. Creatine intake post-training with carbohydrates and protein is found to enhance creatine storage caused by increases in blood flow and the effect of insulin.

Caffeine can also help with the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which we discussed earlier. Gums with caffeine content, which are increasing in popularity, are absorbed more quickly and could be taken closer to competition.

The half-life of caffeine depends on genetic factors but ranges from 2. This would be most beneficial in sports with repeated high-intensity sprints 1—7 minutes and may not be beneficial in single, maximal sprint events.

Gastrointestinal symptoms are a known side effect of sodium bicarbonate, and tolerance should be tested during non-key training sessions. Splitting the amount into smaller doses spread over the pre-training period may help. This occurs through the increased synthesis of carnosine, which lowers the ph balance in the muscle by exchanging hydrogen ions for calcium within the muscle, leading to enhanced efficiency of contraction in coupling and excitation.

When compared to sodium bicarb, beta-alanine provides more chronic muscular adaptations. Parathesis is a known side effect of beta-alanine, but it can be reduced by dividing the daily dosage and spreading it throughout the day or using a slow-release capsule.

While your competitors obsess over finding the latest and greatest training fad in speed development, get an advantage by making sure that the V8 engine you built during training has the right high-octane fuel to use all that horsepower. When looking at nutrition for speed development and competition, consider the Fueling Speed Hierarchy: carbohydrates, protein, hydration, micronutrients, and supplementation.

Implement a few of these strategies into your training, and let those horses sing! More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes.

Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. Thomas T, Erdman KA, and Burke LM. Naderi A, de Oliveira EP, Ziegenfuss TN, and Willems MET.

Maughan RJ Ed. Burke L, Deakin V, and Minehan M. Clinical Sports Nutrition 6th Edition 6th ed. Lindsey Salwasser is a Registered Dietitian and a Certified Specialist in Sports Dietetics.

Lindsey has spent the last five years as an Associate Athletic Director and Director of Performance Nutrition at the Division 1, Power 5 collegiate level most recently, Washington State University.

These observations appear essential to the understanding of recovery: athletes with low glycogen stores during exercise will see an increase in their nitrogen balance. Tarnopolsky et al.

Given the significant levels of inter-individual variability in terms of protein digestibility and assimilation, for endurance athletes, a daily intake of 1. For athletes performing strength sports, and for those in whom muscle mass must be maintained, sufficient protein intake to equilibrate the nitrogen balance is estimated at between 1.

For athletes wishing to increase their muscle mass, increased dietary protein intake, varying between 2 and 2. d -1 , may be offered for limited periods. However, high protein intake must not be prolonged, and must not exceed six months per year Martin, Given our current knowledge, it seems difficult to justify intakes sometimes exceeding 3 g.

It is especially important to note that urinary excretion of nitrogen induces increased fluid loss. This is why fluid intake must be closely monitored and adjusted in these populations.

The absence of visible alarm signals should not be used to encourage consumption of abnormal protein quantities, particularly since we now know that there is no proven scientific justification for this practice. This was observed in a population of master athletes Esmarck et al.

In this case, Tipton et al. Figure 4: Net phenylalanine production in the blood over four periods rest, exercise, Hr 1 PE: one hour post-exercise, and Hr 2 PE: two hours post-exercise. Adapted from Tipton et al. The indicator of muscle protein synthesis used was based on the net rate of phenylalanine production from amino acids circulating in the blood.

These results could be explained by an increased rate of blood flow, favouring a greater influx of amino acids AA to the muscles, and thus a reduction in the lag time for protein synthesis. In agreement with this result, it is of note that the effect of increased AAs on protein synthesis is of short duration, despite efforts to maintain consistently high blood concentrations Bohe et al.

Thus, it is more practical to have several small intakes of dietary proteins at regular intervals lunch, snack, dinner, etc. The acute effect observed by Tipton et al. This suggests that muscle mass could grow if the protein intake — preferably of dietary proteins — was repeated over an extended period.

We lack convincing evidence that, in young athletic adults, exercise combined with supplements induces a more positive protein balance in the long term than exercise without supplements. It is also necessary to take into account the possible influences of physical exercise on protein metabolism over the remainder of the day various meals, sleep, etc.

However, it must be borne in mind that most of the results described here were obtained for a single variable i. protein synthesis , which, although necessary, is not sufficient for muscular hypertrophy. Measurements in real life, possibly showing a benefit in terms of strength or muscle diameter after several weeks, are difficult to carry out.

Indeed, glycogen depletion during exercise induces a greater increase in urea excretion than during rest. As we have seen, urea excretion is a reflection of the use of nitrogen-based compounds Lemon, It seems clear that oxidation of amino acids during exercise is closely related to the availability of other energy substrates.

The enzymatic complex: branched chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase BCKA-DH , is a major actor in this process. It is the limiting enzyme in the leucine catabolism pathway, and its activity is controlled by factors such as intensity and duration of exercise. Experiments based on animal models have shown that BCKA-DH activity in the muscle increases with running speed Kasperek and Snider, Similarly, endurance training induces an increase in leucine oxidation during exercise by increasing the activity of muscle BCKA-DH.

In various rat populations leucine was found to significantly stimulate protein synthesis following exercise on a treadmill. It is assumed that these high insulin concentrations can stimulate uptake of selected amino acids along with the rate of protein synthesis Gore et al.

In addition, insulin is known to inhibit proteolysis Biolo et al. Very recently, Howarth et al. The solutions contained: a medium concentration of carbohydrates 1.

h -1 L-CHO , a very high concentration of carbohydrates 1. h -1 H-CHO or a medium concentration of carbohydrates in addition to proteins 1. h -1 CHO and 0. h -1 PRO. Consuming PRO—CHO during recovery allowed a significant increase in the net protein balance four hours after the end of aerobic exercise, as well as an increase in the rate of protein synthesis.

The results from the group consuming PRO—CHO during recovery led the authors to conclude that there is a possible adaptation of the muscle, on the one hand, and muscular anabolism, on the other, to repair the damage induced by long duration exercise.

Another recent study was carried out on several high level athletes running for 45 minutes on a treadmill Koopman et al. Immediately after exercise the athletes consumed energy drinks composed of: carbohydrates 0.

h -1 CHO ; carbohydrates and proteins 0. h -1 PRO ; or, carbohydrates, protein and free leucine 0. h -1 CHO; 0. h -1 PRO and 0. h -1 Leu. It seems that the ingestion of proteins during recovery, with an additional charge in leucine a substituted amino acid , allows greater stimulation of protein synthesis when associated with CHO than when the drink consumed contains carbohydrates alone.

Leucine therefore stimulates protein synthesis — in an insulin-dependent manner — by different pathways. Leucine has the particularity of working as a nutritional signalling molecule modulating protein synthesis. Leucine was also shown to potentially affect muscle protein metabolism by reducing degradation Nair et al.

This is most likely achieved through increasing circulating insulin and phosphorylating key proteins involved in regulating protein synthesis Karlsson et al. The maximal rates of protein synthesis during post-exercise recovery probably require signalling from these amino acids i. substituted and branched , but also from the anabolic signal provided by exercise.

Adapted from Koopman et al. The complexity of, and metabolic interrelationships within, pathways involving amino acids do not favour analysis of their transformation.

Oral supplementation aiming to regulate the BCAA concentration in the blood would reduce the conversion of tryptophan to serotonin in the brain.

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter playing a role in sensing fatigue. The serotonin response and evolving prolactin concentrations accompany modifications of substituted amino acid SAA — valine, isoleucine, leucine — concentrations in plasma.

From this observation, Newsholme formulated the hypothesis that changes to the concentration of SAA can regulate the central mechanisms of fatigue by increasing the speed of serotonin synthesis. To our knowledge, a single recent study of top level athletes investigated the influence of BCAA and their impact on mental performance during the recovery phase.

Portier et al. The results show that a diet enriched in SAA during a competition allows better conservation of mental performances during the recovery phase than the carbohydrate-based diet generally observed in this sport.

This could be an interesting application where, in cases like sailing, competitive legs follow each other throughout the day with very limited recovery periods. Adapted from Portier et al. h -1 — associated with carbohydrates 0.

h -1 and proteins 0. h -1 , is recommended in order to stimulate post-exercise protein synthesis, and thus recovery Koopman et al.

Thus, athletes whose glycogen stores are depleted during exercise will see an increase in their nitrogen balance. In order to avoid a negative nitrogen balance in endurance athletes, the minimal protein intake seems to be between 1. d -1 Tarnopolsky et al. Stimulation of this, observed one hour after the ingestion of dietary protein, favours anabolism of contractile and structural proteins in skeletal muscle Matzen et al.

In the sugars category, glucose plays a predominant role, as it is immediately available. It is transported in the blood, and its catabolism supplies cells with energy. All cells therefore use blood glucose. For example, it covers half the energy needs of the central nervous system, the remainder coming from the degradation of ketone bodies.

When they are not used to renew the glycogen stores of various tissues, excess dietary sugars are converted into lipids in the liver and in adipocytes. In aerobic conditions, complete oxidation of a mole of glucose leads to the formation of 38 moles of adenosine triphosphate ATP. When resting, during postprandial periods, glucose absorption is discontinuous.

For g absorbed during a meal, it is estimated that 60 g are oxidized over the following three hours. This use of glucose allows relative lipid savings. Ingesting sugar-containing foods during this recovery phase leads to two phenomena: on the one hand, an increased rate of resynthesis, and on the other, an increased level of glycogen, above those present prior to exercise.

Glycogen resynthesis capacities differ depending on the nature of the sugars available. The speed of muscle glycogen resynthesis is identical during the recovery phase after ingestion of glucose or glucose polymers, but it is slower with fructose Blom et al.

In contrast, fructose increases the resynthesis rate for hepatic glycogen, to the extent that glycogen synthesis is promoted by insulin activity.

It is therefore more efficient, during recovery, to administer carbohydrates with a high glycaemic index. The GI allows the physical response to oral intake of carbohydrates CHO to be characterized.

It is defined as the area under the curve for glycaemic response after the ingestion of a sugar-containing food. This curve reflects, on the one hand, the speed of appearance of sugar in the blood, and on the other, its speed of capture by the tissues using it. The GI thus allows foods to be compared.

In this way, for a population of highly trained cyclists, Burke et al. This result cannot be totally explained by variations in insulin and glucose concentrations.

Figure 7: Muscle glygogen concentrations, immediately and 24 hours after performing prolonged exercise in subjects having consumed 10 g of carbohydrate CHO per kg body weight over the 24 hours following exercise. These CHO are sugars with a low or high glycaemic index.

Adapted from Burke et al. Indeed, Joszi et al. These authors therefore show that the poor digestibility of some CHOs leads to overestimation of their availability in the intestine Joszi et al.

We think, in addition, that these studies should be reinforced by others, during which real food should be ingested. Nevertheless, a longitudinal study, carried out over 30 days, showed that an active population exposed to a low GI daily diet showed reduced glycogen synthesis, compared to initial values and values for a similar population consuming a high GI diet Kiens and Richter, From this observation, we must therefore be careful when we recommend only diets with a low GI, to the extent that these do not always favour glycogen resynthesis.

While the composition of CHO solutions appears crucial for the recovery phase, the timing of intake also influences muscle glycogen resynthesis. These strategies are very important during unique restrictive situations such as triathlon or marathon , but also during events where competitive legs are repeated throughout the day such as swimming, middle-distance racing or repeated judo combats.

The sooner carbohydrates are consumed after completing exercise, the higher the amount of muscle glycogen resynthesized. Thus, when some CHO is ingested immediately after exercise, the quantity of muscle glycogen measured 6 hours later is higher than when the intake of CHO is delayed for two hours after the end of exercise Ivy et al.

It is now accepted that exercise increases both sensitivity to insulin Richter et al. This is mainly due to the fact that the enzyme glycogen synthase is activated by glycogen depletion Wojtaszewski et al.

Sugar-based nutrition immediately after exercise takes advantage of these effects, as reflected by the higher rates of glycogen storage 7. h -1 over the first two hours of recovery. The usual rates of glycogen storage 4. h -1 , are judged insufficient in this context [Ivy et al.

This study showed the basis for recovery with regards to glycogen: ingestion of too little CHO immediately after exercise induces very low rates of glycogen resynthesis, rates which are not inclined to promote repeated performances training or competition. In addition, delaying food-based CHO intake for four hours after the end of exercise does not allow high rates of glycogen resynthesis, in contrast with immediate post-exercise intake.

These results are particularly relevant for relatively short recovery periods between exercises between six and eight hours. When recovery is longer between 8 and 24 hours , dietary intake of CHO immediately after exercise does not result in accelerated glycogen resynthesis Parkin et al. As part of twice-daily training sessions for high-performance athletes, it is preferable to favour early food intake after exercise, with a view to promoting replenishment of glycogen stores and thus avoid penalizing the second training session.

In the case of athletes not training more than once per day, it is not so much a question of rushing to consume CHO just after exercise as of favouring consumption of a meal or snack with adequate CHO before the next training session.

However, in the case of exercises requiring a high rate of energy expenditure and of long duration, sugar sources should be provided during training. Figure 8: Timing of carbohydrate CHO intake and glycogen resynthesis. Studies interested in the hour recovery period have shown that large meals based on complex carbohydrates twice a day or carbohydrate-based snacks repeated seven times per day, have equivalent power to reconstitute muscle glycogen stores Costill et al.

More recently, similar results were found for high-performance athletes ingesting four complex carbohydrate-based meals per day or 16 snacks, one per hour Burke et al.

In this last study, although the glycogen resynthesis rates were similar in both conditions, the blood glucose and insulin concentrations were different over the course of the 24 hours Burke et al.

In addition, very high rates of glycogen synthesis have been reported over the first 4 to 6 hours of recovery when high quantities of CHO were ingested at 15 to 30 minute intervals Doyle et al.

These high rates were attributed to the maintenance of insulin and blood glucose levels, as a result of this dietary protocol. The apparent conflict between these last results seems to reside in the fact that the concentrations are not compared to those obtained in protocols where several CHO-based snacks are offered to athletes.

It seems, however, that the maximal rate of glycogen resynthesis measured during recovery, is obtained for athletes consuming 0. kg -1 body weight every 15 minutes i.

In addition, the authors indicate in this study that glycogen resynthesis is not comparable depending on the type of exhausting exercise performed concentric-contraction or eccentric-contraction over the previous 48 hours.

In line with the importance of the timing of ingestion of CHO, it is of note that glucose penetration into cells is insulin-dependent, requiring specific transporters GLUTs [Williams, , Fig.

During exercise, insulin and muscle contraction stimulate glucose capture in the muscles via GLUT-4 transporters Holloszy and Hansen, Even if a dissociated and cumulative effect of insulin and muscle contraction exists, the mechanisms leading to translocation of GLUT-4 transporters seem to be distinct Nesher et al.

Muscle contraction and insulin favour the recruitment of GLUT-4 from different intracellular pools Thorell et al. More recently, in a population of eleven cyclists McCoy et al.

In addition, the increase in permeability of the muscle membrane to glucose, in post-exercise conditions, is due to the number of glucose transporters integrated in the plasma membrane, and probably, to the increase in intrinsic transporter activity Ivy and Kuo, In this context, Goodyear et al.

Very interestingly, the decreased time for glucose transport observed by Goodyear et al. Figure 9: Rate of muscle glycogen resynthesis over the four to ten hours following the end of exercise. Use of low-osmolarity maltodextrin approximately 1.

Adapted from Doyle et al. Adapted from Williams et al. These authors report that consuming to g of CHO per day induced greater replenishment of glycogen stores over a hour period than lower CHO quantities.

A few years later, it was shown that the intake of 1. This rate was not improved when the CHO quantity was doubled i. In addition, Sherman and Lamb were similarly able to show that no difference was recorded with post-exercise CHO quantities of or g per day.

In contrast, doses of and g per day induced significantly lower resynthesis when comparing muscle glycogen levels before and after exercise Fig. As part of this, Criswell et al. The data obtained from 44 football players showed that the energy drink allowed plasma volumes to be stabilized during recovery, while the non-glucose drink with electrolytes did not allow maintenance of blood volume i.

However, the energy drink did not influence the drop in anaerobic performance. Figure Glycogen resynthesis after exhausting exercise.

Using four concentrations, low level of CHO and g. d -1 or very rich in CHO and g. This seems to be linked to induction of higher levels of insulin secretion by the combination than those provoked by CHO alone Pallotta and Kennedy, Currently, somewhat contradictory results have been obtained regarding the potential benefit of associating CHO and PRO, the differences obtained might be attributable to the experimental protocol itself, to the frequency of supplementation or to the quantities of CHO and PRO offered to athletes.

For example, in studies where benefits with regard to glycogen resynthesis were found for the combination of CHO with PRO, subjects were fed every two hours Zawadzki et al. Studies which did not show any effect of the addition of proteins on glycogen resynthesis often used renutrition intervals of between 15 and 30 minutes Tarnopolsky et al.

In addition, in some of these studies, very high quantities of CHO were administered van Hall et al. Independent of the experimental procedures used, it seems obvious that CHO-rich post-exercise nutrition at very frequent intervals reduces the benefit of protein supplementation during recovery see summary in table 1.

Table 1: Comparison of studies where proteins PRO were added to carbohydrates CHO in the diet consumed during recovery. This hormone is determinant for glycogen synthesis, acting both on glucose penetration into muscle fibres and on the activity of glycogen synthase, the limiting enzyme in glycogen synthesis.

In most cases, consuming a mixture of CHO and PRO should allow a more marked insulin response. Glycogen resynthesis was evaluated four hours after the consumption of solutions containing g CHO, The results of this study showed that the amount of glycogen formed per hour is significantly greater in athletes consuming the mixture of CHO and PRO.

These results have, however, been questioned, since the quantity of CHO absorbed during recovery was not optimal. Thus, when using optimal CHO concentrations, van Hall et al. In , Ivy et al. Showed that after exhausting ergocycle training, intakes spaced every two hours of a mixture containing both CHO and proteins induced an increase in muscle glycogen resynthesis.

In the same context, Williams et al. During recovery from this, CHO alone or a mixture of CHO and PRO was administered immediately after exercise and two hours later. As indicated in Figure 12, the solution composed of CHO and PRO allowed improvement of the time to exhaustion.

Figure Individual and average times to exhaustion for cyclists. X SB : average, CHO alone; X CHO-PRO : average, CHO-PRO. The study subjects then ingested different meals and solutions, immediately, one or two hours after exercise. Various muscle biopsies were taken pre- and post-exercise to quantify glycogen resynthesis Fig.

This final result has an undeniable impact: when post-exercise nutrition must be spaced out and when two exercise periods are to be performed with only a small recovery period, the combination of carbohydrates and proteins probably has great advantages with regards to increasing the speed of glycogen resynthesis.

Figure Muscle glycogen resynthesis in the Vastus Lateralis over a 6-hour recovery period following 60 min of exhausting exercise. Adapted from Berardi et al.

h -1 consumed at frequent intervals Jentjens and Jeukendrup, day -1 Tarnopolsky et al. day -1 Ivy et al. The addition of proteins meat, fish, eggs etc. to the usual diet inevitably allows faster muscle glycogen resynthesis.

Add 0. There is an observable advantage to splitting CHO intakes over the early recovery phase, particularly when the meal time is not soon Ivy et al. It must be remembered that no difference was observed, with regard to glycogen replenishment, when carbohydrates are taken either as solids or in liquid form Burke et al.

The quantities ingested are crucial for muscle glycogen resynthesis. Athletes who do not consume enough calories often have difficulties reconstituting their glycogen stores: these populations must be carefully observed so as not to induce too high a deficit Kerksick et al.

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