This development was spurred by the discovery of indium gallium arsenide and the development of the indium gallium arsenide photodiode by Pearsall. Engineers overcame earlier difficulties with pulse-spreading using conventional InGaAsP semiconductor lasers at that wavelength by using dispersion-shifted fibers designed to have minimal dispersion at 1.

These developments eventually allowed third-generation systems to operate commercially at 2. The fourth generation of fiber-optic communication systems used optical amplification to reduce the need for repeaters and wavelength-division multiplexing WDM to increase data capacity.

The introduction of WDM was the start of optical networking , as WDM became the technology of choice for fiber-optic bandwidth expansion. The focus of development for the fifth generation of fiber-optic communications is on extending the wavelength range over which a WDM system can operate.

The conventional wavelength window, known as the C band, covers the wavelength range — nm, and dry fiber has a low-loss window promising an extension of that range to — nm.

In the late s through , industry promoters, and research companies such as KMI, and RHK predicted massive increases in demand for communications bandwidth due to increased use of the Internet , and commercialization of various bandwidth-intensive consumer services, such as video on demand.

Internet Protocol data traffic was increasing exponentially, at a faster rate than integrated circuit complexity had increased under Moore's Law. From the bust of the dot-com bubble through , however, the main trend in the industry has been consolidation of firms and offshoring of manufacturing to reduce costs.

Modern fiber-optic communication systems generally include optical transmitters that convert electrical signals into optical signals, optical fiber cables to carry the signal, optical amplifiers, and optical receivers to convert the signal back into an electrical signal.

The information transmitted is typically digital information generated by computers or telephone systems. The most commonly used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such as light-emitting diodes LEDs and laser diodes. The difference between LEDs and laser diodes is that LEDs produce incoherent light , while laser diodes produce coherent light.

For use in optical communications, semiconductor optical transmitters must be designed to be compact, efficient and reliable, while operating in an optimal wavelength range and directly modulated at high frequencies.

In its simplest form, an LED emits light through spontaneous emission , a phenomenon referred to as electroluminescence. The emitted light is incoherent with a relatively wide spectral width of 30—60 nm. LEDs have been developed that use several quantum wells to emit light at different wavelengths over a broad spectrum and are currently in use for local-area wavelength-division multiplexing WDM applications.

LEDs have been largely superseded by vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser VCSEL devices, which offer improved speed, power and spectral properties, at a similar cost. However, due to their relatively simple design, LEDs are very useful for very low-cost applications.

Commonly used classes of semiconductor laser transmitters used in fiber optics include VCSEL, Fabry—Pérot and distributed-feedback laser. A semiconductor laser emits light through stimulated emission rather than spontaneous emission, which results in high output power ~ mW as well as other benefits related to the nature of coherent light.

Common VCSEL devices also couple well to multimode fiber. The narrow spectral width also allows for high bit rates since it reduces the effect of chromatic dispersion. Furthermore, semiconductor lasers can be modulated directly at high frequencies because of short recombination time.

Laser diodes are often directly modulated , that is the light output is controlled by a current applied directly to the device. For very high data rates or very long distance links, a laser source may be operated continuous wave , and the light modulated by an external device, an optical modulator , such as an electro-absorption modulator or Mach—Zehnder interferometer.

External modulation increases the achievable link distance by eliminating laser chirp , which broadens the linewidth in directly modulated lasers, increasing the chromatic dispersion in the fiber.

For very high bandwidth efficiency, coherent modulation can be used to vary the phase of the light in addition to the amplitude, enabling the use of QPSK , QAM , and OFDM. The main component of an optical receiver is a photodetector which converts light into electricity using the photoelectric effect.

The primary photodetectors for telecommunications are made from Indium gallium arsenide. The photodetector is typically a semiconductor-based photodiode. Several types of photodiodes include p-n photodiodes, p-i-n photodiodes, and avalanche photodiodes.

Metal-semiconductor-metal MSM photodetectors are also used due to their suitability for circuit integration in regenerators and wavelength-division multiplexers. Since light may be attenuated and distorted while passing through the fiber, photodetectors are typically coupled with a transimpedance amplifier and a limiting amplifier to produce a digital signal in the electrical domain recovered from the incoming optical signal.

Further signal processing such as clock recovery from data performed by a phase-locked loop may also be applied before the data is passed on. Coherent receivers use a local oscillator laser in combination with a pair of hybrid couplers and four photodetectors per polarization, followed by high-speed ADCs and digital signal processing to recover data modulated with QPSK, QAM, or OFDM.

An optical communication system transmitter consists of a digital-to-analog converter DAC , a driver amplifier and a Mach—Zehnder modulator. Digital predistortion counteracts the degrading effects and enables Baud rates up to 56 GBd and modulation formats like QAM and QAM with the commercially available components.

The transmitter digital signal processor performs digital predistortion on the input signals using the inverse transmitter model before sending the samples to the DAC. Older digital predistortion methods only addressed linear effects. Recent publications also consider non-linear distortions.

Berenguer et al models the Mach—Zehnder modulator as an independent Wiener system and the DAC and the driver amplifier are modeled by a truncated, time-invariant Volterra series. Duthel et al records, for each branch of the Mach-Zehnder modulator, several signals at different polarity and phases.

The signals are used to calculate the optical field. Cross-correlating in-phase and quadrature fields identifies the timing skew.

The frequency response and the non-linear effects are determined by the indirect-learning architecture. An optical fiber cable consists of a core, cladding , and a buffer a protective outer coating , in which the cladding guides the light along the core by using the method of total internal reflection.

The core and the cladding which has a lower- refractive-index are usually made of high-quality silica glass, although they can both be made of plastic as well.

Connecting two optical fibers is done by fusion splicing or mechanical splicing and requires special skills and interconnection technology due to the microscopic precision required to align the fiber cores. Two main types of optical fiber used in optic communications include multi-mode optical fibers and single-mode optical fibers.

However, a multi-mode fiber introduces multimode distortion , which often limits the bandwidth and length of the link. Furthermore, because of its higher dopant content, multi-mode fibers are usually expensive and exhibit higher attenuation.

Both single- and multi-mode fiber is offered in different grades. In order to package fiber into a commercially viable product, it typically is protectively coated by using ultraviolet cured acrylate polymers [ citation needed ] and assembled into a cable.

After that, it can be laid in the ground and then run through the walls of a building and deployed aerially in a manner similar to copper cables. These fibers require less maintenance than common twisted pair wires once they are deployed.

Specialized cables are used for long-distance subsea data transmission, e. transatlantic communications cable. New — cables operated by commercial enterprises Emerald Atlantis , Hibernia Atlantic typically have four strands of fiber and signals cross the Atlantic NYC-London in 60—70 ms.

Another common practice is to bundle many fiber optic strands within long-distance power transmission cable using, for instance, an optical ground wire. This exploits power transmission rights of way effectively, ensures a power company can own and control the fiber required to monitor its own devices and lines, is effectively immune to tampering, and simplifies the deployment of smart grid technology.

The transmission distance of a fiber-optic communication system has traditionally been limited by fiber attenuation and by fiber distortion. By using optoelectronic repeaters, these problems have been eliminated. These repeaters convert the signal into an electrical signal and then use a transmitter to send the signal again at a higher intensity than was received, thus counteracting the loss incurred in the previous segment.

Because of the high complexity with modern wavelength-division multiplexed signals, including the fact that they had to be installed about once every 20 km 12 mi , the cost of these repeaters is very high. An alternative approach is to use optical amplifiers which amplify the optical signal directly without having to convert the signal to the electrical domain.

One common type of optical amplifier is an erbium-doped fiber amplifier EDFA. These are made by doping a length of fiber with the rare-earth mineral erbium and laser pumping it with light with a shorter wavelength than the communications signal typically nm.

EDFAs provide gain in the ITU C band at nm. Optical amplifiers have several significant advantages over electrical repeaters. First, an optical amplifier can amplify a very wide band at once which can include hundreds of multiplexed channels, eliminating the need to demultiplex signals at each amplifier.

Second, optical amplifiers operate independently of the data rate and modulation format, enabling multiple data rates and modulation formats to co-exist and enabling upgrading of the data rate of a system without having to replace all of the repeaters.

Third, optical amplifiers are much simpler than a repeater with the same capabilities and are therefore significantly more reliable.

Optical amplifiers have largely replaced repeaters in new installations, although electronic repeaters are still widely used when signal conditioning beyond amplification is required.

Wavelength-division multiplexing WDM is the technique of transmitting multiple channels of information through a single optical fiber by sending multiple light beams of different wavelengths through the fiber, each modulated with a separate information channel.

This allows the available capacity of optical fibers to be multiplied. This requires a wavelength division multiplexer in the transmitting equipment and a demultiplexer essentially a spectrometer in the receiving equipment.

Arrayed waveguide gratings are commonly used for multiplexing and demultiplexing in WDM. Because the effect of dispersion increases with the length of the fiber, a fiber transmission system is often characterized by its bandwidth—distance product , usually expressed in units of MHz ·km.

This value is a product of bandwidth and distance because there is a trade-off between the bandwidth of the signal and the distance over which it can be carried.

For example, a common multi-mode fiber with bandwidth—distance product of MHz·km could carry a MHz signal for 1 km or a MHz signal for 0. Using wavelength-division multiplexing , each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light.

The net data rate data rate without overhead bytes per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the forward error correction FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of channels usually up to eighty in commercial dense WDM systems as of [update].

The following summarizes research using standard telecoms-grade single-mode, single-solid-core fiber cables. The following summarizes research using specialized cables that allow spatial multiplexing to occur, use specialized tri-mode fiber cables or similar specialized fiber optic cables.

Research conducted by the RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia, have developed a nanophotonic device that carries data on light waves that have been twisted into a spiral form and achieved a fold increase in current attainable fiber optic speeds.

The nanophotonic device uses ultra-thin sheets to measure a fraction of a millimeter of twisted light. Nano-electronic device is embedded within a connector smaller than the size of a USB connector and may be fitted at the end of an optical fiber cable. For modern glass optical fiber, the maximum transmission distance is limited not by direct material absorption but by dispersion , the spreading of optical pulses as they travel along the fiber.

Dispersion limits the bandwidth of the fiber because the spreading optical pulse limits the rate which pulses can follow one another on the fiber and still be distinguishable at the receiver. Dispersion in optical fibers is caused by a variety of factors.

Intermodal dispersion , caused by the different axial speeds of different transverse modes , limits the performance of multi-mode fiber. Because single-mode fiber supports only one transverse mode, intermodal dispersion is eliminated.

In single-mode fiber performance is primarily limited by chromatic dispersion , which occurs because the index of the glass varies slightly depending on the wavelength of the light, and, due to modulation, light from optical transmitters necessarily occupies a narrow range of wavelengths.

Polarization mode dispersion , another source of limitation, occurs because although the single-mode fiber can sustain only one transverse mode, it can carry this mode with two different polarizations, and slight imperfections or distortions in a fiber can alter the propagation velocities for the two polarizations.

This phenomenon is called birefringence and can be counteracted by polarization-maintaining optical fiber. Some dispersion, notably chromatic dispersion, can be removed by a dispersion compensator. This works by using a specially prepared length of fiber that has the opposite dispersion to that induced by the transmission fiber, and this sharpens the pulse so that it can be correctly decoded by the electronics.

Fiber attenuation is caused by a combination of material absorption , Rayleigh scattering , Mie scattering , and losses in connectors. Material absorption for pure silica is only around 0. Modern fiber has attenuation around 0.

Other forms of attenuation are caused by physical stresses to the fiber, microscopic fluctuations in density, and imperfect splicing techniques. Each effect that contributes to attenuation and dispersion depends on the optical wavelength.

There are wavelength bands or windows where these effects are weakest, and these are the most favorable for transmission. These windows have been standardized. Note that this table shows that current technology has managed to bridge the E and S windows that were originally disjoint. Historically, there was a window of wavelengths shorter than O band, called the first window, at — nm; however, losses are high in this region so this window is used primarily for short-distance communications.

To maximize coupling into a single-mode fiber, you must match the incident field distribution to that of the fiber mode. Given the laser beam waist and divergence, it's easy to determine the distance needed between the focusing lens and the laser to expand the beam to the required diameter.

The mode field diameter is now given to provide easier matching of lens to optical fiber for a Gaussian beam. A high numerical aperture lens must collimate the diverging output beam of a laser diode.

Newport's F-L Series Diode Laser Focusing Lenses , are AR-coated for high transmittance at popular laser diode wavelengths and — with numerical apertures up to 0. Many multimode fiber experiments are sensitive to the distribution of power among the fiber's modes.

This is determined by the launching optics, fiber perturbations, and the fiber's length. Mode scrambling is a technique that distributes the optical power in a fiber among all the guided modes.

Mode filtering simulates the effects of kilometer lengths of fiber by attenuating higher-order fiber modes. One scrambling technique is to splice a length of graded-index fiber between two pieces of step-index fiber — this ensures that the downstream fiber's core is overfilled regardless of launch conditions.

Mode filtering can be achieved by wrapping a fiber several times around a finger-sized mandrel; bending sheds the high-order modes. One way to achieve both scrambling and filtering is to introduce microbending to cause rapid coupling between all fiber modes and attenuation of high-order modes.

One approach is to place a stripped section of fiber in a box filled with lead shot. A more precise way is to use Newport'. FM-1 Mode Scrambler. This specially designed tool uses a calibrated mechanism to introduce microbending for mode scrambling and filtering.

Some light is invariably launched into a fiber's cladding. Though cladding modes dissipate rapidly with fiber length, they can interfere with measurements. For example, the output of a single-mode fiber will not have a Gaussian distribution if light is propagating in the cladding.

You can remove cladding modes by stripping a length of fiber coating and immersing the bare fiber in an index matching fluid such as glycerin. Port Configuration: Number of input ports x number of output ports. Isolation: The ratio of the power at an output port in the transmitted wavelength band to that in the extinguished wavelength band, expressed in dB.

Directivity: The ratio of the power returned to any other input port to the launched power, expressed in dB. Bandwidth: The range of operating wavelengths over which performance parameters are specified. Excess Loss: The ratio of the total power at all output ports to the launched power, expressed in dB.

Uniformity: The difference between maximum and minimum insertion losses. Extinction Ratio: The ratio of the residual power in an extinguished polarization state to the transmitted power, expressed in dB. Return Loss: The ratio of the power returned to the input port to the launched power, expressed in dB.

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Fibers with a connector on the end make this process much simpler: the connector is simply plugged into a pre-aligned fiber-optic collimator, which contains a lens that is either accurately positioned to the fiber or is adjustable.

To achieve the best injection efficiency into a single-mode fiber, the direction, position, size, and divergence of the beam must all be optimized. With properly polished single-mode fibers, the emitted beam has an almost perfect Gaussian shape—even in the far field—if a good lens is used.

The lens needs to be large enough to support the full numerical aperture of the fiber, and must not introduce aberrations in the beam. Aspheric lenses are typically used. At high optical intensities, above 2 megawatts per square centimeter, when a fiber is subjected to a shock or is otherwise suddenly damaged, a fiber fuse can occur.

The refractive index of fibers varies slightly with the frequency of light, and light sources are not perfectly monochromatic. Modulation of the light source to transmit a signal also slightly widens the frequency band of the transmitted light. This has the effect that, over long distances and at high modulation speeds, the different frequencies of light can take different times to arrive at the receiver, ultimately making the signal impossible to discern, and requiring extra repeaters.

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Fiber Bragg grating Fiber management system The Fiber Optic Association Gradient-index optics Interconnect bottleneck Leaky mode Li-Fi Light tube Modal bandwidth Optical communication Optical mesh network Optical power meter Radiation effects on optical fibers Return loss Subwavelength-diameter optical fibre.

The gamma radiation causes the optical attenuation to increase considerably during the gamma-ray burst due to the darkening of the material, followed by the fiber itself emitting a bright light flash as it anneals.

How long the annealing takes and the level of the residual attenuation depends on the fiber material and its temperature.

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