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When roast, Trigonelline Carbohydrate myths and facts degrades to form nicotinic acid and pyridines. Catfeine acid Cafveine also known aantioxidants Vitamin B3 or niacinwhich is a well-known antioxidant.
By demethylating Trigonelline at high temperatures of between degree Celsius and degree Celsius, roasters can gain vitamin B3 when 85 percent Trigonelline decomposes. What really matters is the temperature applied as opposed to how long the coffee lasts in the heat.
Chlorogenic acid CGA is abundant in both green and roasted coffee. According to the Journal of Nutrition, CGA stands in for a large number of esterified compounds — it is the ester of caffeic acid, for example. The phenolic compound is a core player in antioxidant, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activity in the body.
Lactones found in CGA have also shown to enhance insulin function in lab rats. If it worked in humans, CGA might be used to fight diabetes. Green coffee is cited as a primary source of CGA, and tests conducted in rats and humans lead to findings that CGAs helps curb fat accumulation in the body and boost metabolism rate.
However, this study used decaffeinated coffee only and no regular coffee at all. In particular, Hydroxycinnamic acid contains some of the most active antioxidant properties in a coffee beverage. Hydroxycinnamic acid is cited as a powerful oxidising agent that neutralises free radicals and aids in curbing the adverse effects of oxidative stress.
To single out three of the most abundant:. For example, 3-Caffeoylquinic acid is quoted in two studies as consisting of phenolic acid, a compound found abundantly in coloured fruits and vegetables and is the major ingredient behind antioxidant powers in both antioxidants-rich foods.
One of the studies is Mattila P. More importantly, coffee melanoidin is the brown coloured, nitrogenous compounds in coffee.
The high molecular weight compounds are formed during the roasting process and carry anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, as indicated by one study published in the US National Library of Medicine. The bitter compound is one of the primary agents in coffee that give the latter some of its antioxidant properties.
Quinine is derived from the bark of a tropical evergreen plant known as Cinchona tree—mainly used in Malaria treatment. The bitterness in some coffee beans can be connected to elevated quinine content.
Quinine and coffee belong to the same Rubiaceae family. But more importantly, quinine as an antioxidant becomes more potent after coffee is roasted significantly.
Coffee beverages contain tiny amounts of quinine substance, though. Quinine is, in fact, harmful in larger quantities, and some people have allergic reactions to it.
But the tiny amounts that have shown up in coffee sample tests are pretty little and approved by the Food and Drugs Authority FDA. Caffeine itself is an antioxidant, according to a study published in the Journal of Physical Chemistry B by ACS.
Caffeinated drinks can help cure headaches, in losing weight and preventing diabetes. Recent comprehensive analysis of caffeine brought up interesting results that showed caffeine is structurally similar to uric acid—an established antioxidant. However, research is still ongoing into how, exactly, caffeine works as an antioxidant.
If caffeine indeed turned out to be a healthy antioxidant, the new information could revolutionise how caffeine is viewed the world over. Decaffeinated coffee ranks in with The FRAP test stands for Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power. It measures what chemical changes happen and how well those changes occur when a substance has interacted with various foods.
The same scale indicates both green and black teas to have a FRAP ranking of 18 and 10 respectively. That would mean that coffee does, in fact, have more antioxidant benefits than both types of tea.
According to the research done for Nestle by polling organisation, YouGov, while 40 percent of the respondents thought red wine as a better solution as an antioxidant than coffee, this could not be further from the truth. According to a study led by researcher Perez Jemenez.
The findings, Identification of the richest dietary sources of Polyphenols, established that red wine, on the other hand, served about mg of the same benefits per ml serving. The difference may be little when the two are served in equal portions but a difference nevertheless.
In the US for example, only about 21 percent of Americans intake their antioxidants from other food sources other than coffee. On a global scale, coffee is up top with oil as far as the most traded commodities in the world stack up. Also, the fact that new research also indicates coffee to comprise more antioxidants than the likes of tea and dark chocolate means that coffee is indeed up there with blueberries as a potent antioxidant.
According to Dr. David Troup of Monash University, and one of the first scientists to discover that coffee has free radicals, coffee can react with harmful free radicals and help curb their adverse effects. Decaffeinated coffee drinkers are 15 percent less likely to develop colon cancer for up to 10 years compared with non-drinkers, according to another study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
The same survey indicates that coffee intake can help curb rectal cancer as opposed to coffee consumption, which had no effect at all. In addition to preventing cancerous effects, antioxidants in coffee can help alleviate the danger that ultra-violet rays pose to the skin.
As such, drinking coffee may help prevent skin cancer. In one study, coffee consumption is shown to help women deal with stress, avoid depression and suicidal thoughts. Coffee is not without a couple of health issues. In fact, excessive consumption of coffee can lead to addiction and, ultimately, loss of life.
Drinking more than 8 cups of coffee per day can lead to increased levels of bad cholesterol in the blood, result in excessive weight gain and diabetes. Additionally, caffeine consumption can cause men with enlarged prostates to witness increased symptoms. Some compounds of coffee, such as melanoidin formed after roasting coffee, can trigger allergic reactions in some people.
Pregnant women are also advised not to over-indulge in drinking coffee as it can lead to a miscarriage. New research indicates that coffee antioxidants do make coffee a healthier antioxidant solution compared to other well known antioxidant compounds.
But almost every study that credits coffee as a super antioxidant also highlights caffeine as a major health alarm to watch out for. Apart from the fact that caffeine can easily be an addictive stimulant, it can also lead to a flurry of health issues such as increased levels of LDL bad cholesterolheart disease as well as muscular tremors.
The latter could happen as a result of the inadequacy of magnesium in the body, an essential mineral that the body needs to regulate physiological processes such as cell energy absorption.
It is, therefore, wise to take coffee in moderation. The benefits mentioned above result only from a moderate coffee intake. Home Health. Antioxidants in a Flash The connecting line among these conditions is that they are all traceable back to high toxin levels in the body.
Coffee has had a negative health reputation New research indicates that taking cups of coffee on a daily basis can serve up to 60 percent of your daily antioxidant intake requirement.
: Caffeine and antioxidants| Is coffee good for you? Health benefits, disadvantages, and more | Department of Agriculture. So saying coffee is the No. Antioxidants are plant-derived -- as is coffee -- and plants in general are good are you, he added. There are many sources of antioxidants and "variety is key," because different sources provide different types of antioxidants, Vinson said. He also recommended people drink tea and red wine in moderation. For those who are excited about coffee as a source of antioxidants, Vinson recommends drinking one cup of joe a day. Election We'll notify you here with news about. Turn on desktop notifications for breaking stories about interest? Study: Drinking Coffee Has Health Benefits. By ABC News. But just how much antioxidant power do you get from your daily cup or cups of joe? Antioxidants help your body wage war on free radicals that can cause oxidative stress. Research suggests oxidative stress may contribute to a variety of health issues, including diabetes and high cholesterol. Antioxidants help you avoid oxidative stress by keeping the right balance of free radicals in your bod. So, where do you get antioxidants? Everyday food and drinks. There are oodles of antioxidants in plant-based foods like fruits, veggies, chocolate , tea , and, yes, coffee. Coffee is actually one of the best ways to get antioxidants from your diet, packing to milligrams per cup. A study found that light and medium roasts contained more polyphenols than dark roasts, and organic coffee beans had more antioxidant compounds than conventional beans. Java not your cup of tea? Coffee does have more antioxidants, at to milligrams per cup, but black tea still has to milligrams per cup and is lighter on the caffeine. Like coffee, tea contains antioxidants in the form of polyphenols. But coffee typically has flavonoids and chlorogenic acid, while tea has theaflavins, thearubigins, and catechins. White and green teas have even more antioxidants than black tea. Research has shown that the water temperature and the length of steeping time also affect the amount of antioxidants in tea. In a review of more than 3, foods and bevvies, coffee ranked 11th for the most antioxidants. And in another study of the best dietary sources of antioxidants, coffee ranked higher than any other beverage. In a small study in Japan, researchers found that participants got 79 percent of their daily antioxidants from beverages — mostly coffee, tea, and beer. If you want to get the most antioxidant power out of your coffee, go for an organic light or medium roast. We think of health experts as being superhuman, but many start their day the same way most of us do: with a cup of coffee. We asked 19 top experts to…. Read on to learn why it…. If you love coffee and getting in a protein-packed post-workout meal, these seven coffee protein shakes are guaranteed to get your day off to a solid…. The Ayurvedic diet is a holistic approach to nutrition rooted in Ayurveda, an ancient Indian system of medicine. It emphasizes balancing individual…. Carb cycling is a dietary approach that involves alternating between high and low carb days to optimize energy levels, fat loss, and muscle…. Here's how and if! it works. But is it healthy? Spoiler alert: No. Read on to find out more! Muscle milk is a popular workout recovery drink. While it offers some protein-packed perks, it's important to understand the downsides — like…. Food Meal Prep Diets Weight Supplements Conditions Fitness. Here's the Scoop on Antioxidants in Coffee. Medically reviewed by Adrienne Seitz, MS, RD, LDN , Nutrition — By on October 29, Antioxidants in coffee Coffee vs. The lowdown on coffee and antioxidants. PSA: Not all coffee is created equal. Moderation is key. This is true of antioxidant-packed wine and chocolate too. Skip the sweetener. Watch the caffeine. Racing heart and shaky hands? |
| 1. Introduction | You should seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. New research indicates that taking cups of coffee on a daily basis can serve up to 60 percent of your daily antioxidant intake requirement. Committee Opinion No. Medical News Today. In January , OEHHA completed its review and response to comments and submitted the regulation to the Office of Administrative Law OAL for final review. Pregnant women are also advised not to over-indulge in drinking coffee as it can lead to a miscarriage. How gastric bypass surgery can help with type 2 diabetes remission. |
| Coffee and Antioxidants: Everything You Need to Know | Distilled water 3 mL was used as calibration reference. Read on to find out more! Coffee and Longevity: Do Coffee Drinkers Live Longer? Although coffee may provide some benefits in reducing obesity, it is not a substitute for eating a balanced diet and exercising often. It may also benefit mental health and help you live longer. |
Caffeine and antioxidants -
However, adding sugar, cream, and milk can quickly bump up the calorie counts. A tablespoon of cream contains 52 calories, and a tablespoon of whole milk contains 9 calories.
However, the real caloric danger occurs in specialty mochas, lattes, or blended ice coffee drinks. These drinks are often super-sized and can contain anywhere from calories, as well as an extremely large amount of sugar.
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Skip to content The Nutrition Source. The Nutrition Source Menu. Search for:. Home Nutrition News What Should I Eat? Source Of Caffeine Vitamin B2 riboflavin Magnesium Plant chemicals: polyphenols including chlorogenic acid and quinic acid, and diterpenes including cafestol and kahweol One 8-ounce cup of brewed coffee contains about 95 mg of caffeine.
Coffee and Health Coffee is an intricate mixture of more than a thousand chemicals. Cancer Coffee may affect how cancer develops, ranging from the initiation of a cancer cell to its death.
Type 2 Diabetes Although ingestion of caffeine can increase blood sugar in the short-term, long-term studies have shown that habitual coffee drinkers have a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes compared with non-drinkers.
In a meta-analysis of 45, people with type 2 diabetes followed for up to 20 years, an association was found with increasing cups of coffee and a lower risk of developing diabetes. Caffeinated coffee showed a slightly greater benefit than decaffeinated coffee.
Heart health Caffeine is a stimulant affecting the central nervous system that can cause different reactions in people. The authors found no such association with other caffeinated drinks such as tea and soda. These coffee-specific results suggest that components in coffee other than caffeine may be protective.
Heavier coffee intake of 6 or more cups daily was neither associated with a higher nor a lower risk of cardiovascular disease.
Depression Naturally occurring polyphenols in both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee can act as antioxidants to reduce damaging oxidative stress and inflammation of cells.
to 2 cups of coffee. found a decreasing risk of suicide with increasing coffee consumption. There was no association between decaffeinated coffee and suicide risk, suggesting that caffeine was the key factor, rather than plant compounds in coffee.
There is consistent evidence from epidemiologic studies that higher consumption of caffeine is associated with lower risk of developing PD. The caffeine in coffee has been found in animal and cell studies to protect cells in the brain that produce dopamine.
In that time, after adjusting for known risks of PD, those who drank at least 10 cups of coffee a day had a significantly lower risk of developing the disease than non-drinkers. Women showed the lowest risk when drinking moderate intakes of cups coffee daily.
The authors stated the need for larger studies with longer follow-up periods. Gallstones There are various proposed actions of caffeine or components in coffee that may prevent the formation of gallstones.
Mortality In a large cohort of more than , participants followed for up to 30 years, an association was found between drinking moderate amounts of coffee and lower risk of early death.
Both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee provided benefits. The authors suggested that bioactive compounds in coffee may be responsible for interfering with disease development by reducing inflammation and insulin resistance.
The protective effect was present regardless of a genetic predisposition to either faster or slower caffeine metabolism. Instant and decaffeinated coffee showed a similar health benefit. What about iced coffee? Caffeine Caffeine is naturally found in the fruit, leaves, and beans of coffee, cacao, and guarana plants.
It is also added to beverages and supplements. Learn about sources of caffeine, and a review of the research on this stimulant and health. References Je Y, Liu W, and Giovannucci E.
Coffee consumption and risk of colorectal cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. International Journal of Cancer , Eskelinen MH, Kivipelto M.
J Alzheimers Dis. Grosso G, Godos J, Galvano F, Giovannucci EL. Coffee, Caffeine, and Health Outcomes: An Umbrella Review. Annu Rev Nutr. van Dam RM, Hu FB, Willett WC.
Coffee, Caffeine, and Health. Coffee consumption and risk of endometrial cancer: findings from a large up-to-date meta-analysis. International Journal of Cancer.
Arab L. Epidemiologic evidence on coffee and cancer. Nutrition and Cancer , Ding M, Bhupathiraju SN, Chen M, van Dam RM, Hu FB. Caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and a dose-response meta-analysis. Diabetes Care.
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Eur J Nutr. Lopez-Garcia E, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, Rexrode KM, Logroscino G, Hu FB, van Dam RM. Coffee consumption and risk of stroke in women. de Koning Gans JM, Uiterwaal CS, van der Schouw YT, et al.
Tea and coffee consumption and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. Crippa A, Discacciati A, Larsson SC, Wolk A, Orsini N. Coffee consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis.
Am J Epidemiol. Ding M, Bhupathiraju SN, Satija A, van Dam RM, Hu FB. Long-term coffee consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Ding M, Satija A, Bhupathiraju SN, Hu Y, Sun Q, Han J, Lopez-Garcia E, Willett W, van Dam RM, Hu FB.
Association of Coffee Consumption With Total and Cause-Specific Mortality in 3 Large Prospective Cohorts. Lara DR. Caffeine, mental health, and psychiatric disorders.
Guo X, Park Y, Freedman ND, Sinha R, Hollenbeck AR, Blair A, Chen H. Sweetened beverages, coffee, and tea and depression risk among older US adults. PLoS One. Wang L, Shen X, Wu Y, Zhang D. Coffee and caffeine consumption and depression: A meta-analysis of observational studies.
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Table 2. Effect of roasting on the phenol content and antioxidant capacity of three coffee varieties Bourbon, Caturra, and Catimor.
Regarding the antioxidant capacity of the infusions, the ABTS technique seemed to be less sensitive; however, the trend was similar to that for total phenol content the initial values increased with time and then decreased for the three varieties of coffee studied.
The DPPH radical capture technique was apparently more sensitive than the ABTS technique for determining the antioxidant capacity of the infusions. Unlike the total phenol content, green coffee of the Bourbon variety had the lowest antioxidant capacity Figure 2 and Table 3 show the curves for the change in total polyphenol content during the roasting of the three coffee varieties.
Although the three models, i. More precise models were obtained for the Catimor variety R 2 of 0. In all treatments, a decrease in phenolic content is observed during roasting of the coffee bean Figure 2.
Figure 2. Models of polyphenol degradation during roasting of three coffee varieties Bourbon, Catimor, and Caturra. Table 3. Summary of the models and estimated parameters of polyphenol degradation during the roasting of three coffee varieties.
Figure 3 and Table 4 show the values and evolution of the antioxidant capacity of coffee during roasting. Figure 3. Changes in antioxidants in three varieties of coffee Bourbon, Caturra, and Catimor during roasting. Table 4. Summary of kinetic models of antioxidant activity by capture of the ABTS radical.
As seen in Figure 3 , compared with the ABTS method, the DPPH free radical capture technique showed greater changes in the antioxidant capacity of coffee beans during roasting. Both techniques allowed us to observe that immediately after starting the roasting process, the antioxidant capacity increased up to a certain time 5 to 9 min, as seen in Table 2.
Then, the capacity decreased, and at the end of roasting, a slight increase was observed Figure 3. With the DPPH radical capture technique, models with greater fit were obtained than with the ABTS method, with R 2 values greater than 0. Figure 4 shows the changes of nine phenolic compounds in coffee during roasting.
Four of them Figures 4B, D, F, I increased their content up to the 10th minute of roasting and then decreased, and three other compounds Figures 4A, C, E increased until the end of roasting. Figures 4G, H show that there are phenolic compounds that are affected from the beginning of the roasting process.
Figure 4. Evolution of phenolic compounds during the roasting of two varieties of Arabica coffee. A—I Phenolic compounds identified according to retention time. PC, phenolic compound; RT, retention time.
As can be seen in Figure 5 , and as expected, all the spectra have the same trend; however, there are differences in the content of compounds identified, basically in the detection spectrum of phenolic compounds — The phenolic content of the raw samples increases until minute 9 of roasting and then decreases as a result of the process.
Figure 6 shows that as the degree of roasting increases, the beans are easier to break. During the first 5 min of roasting, there is a reduction in hardness that is maintained, but moderately until the end of the roasting process.
Bourbon coffee requires greater force to fracture the beans during the first minutes, but from minute three onward it presents greater bean fracturability compared to Catimor and Caturra.
Figure 6. Changes in the fracturability of coffee beans during the roasting process. Coffee roasting times usually range from 8 to 12 min, depending on the degree of roasting required 26 , In this research, the roasting time was extended to 21 min to determine changes in bioactive compounds.
Although the variety of coffee is a determining factor with regard to its chemical characteristics 28 , the post-harvest process conditions should also be taken into account. The unroasted samples of the Bourbon variety had higher acidity 1. As in most foods 30 , phenolic compounds are mainly responsible for the antioxidant activity in coffee.
Kinetic models of the phenolic content of coffee during roasting are different from models describing changes in antioxidant activity. This is because although phenolic compounds are the main antioxidants in coffee, there are other compounds such as those derived from the Maillard reaction that have the capacity to capture free radicals The phenol content in the coffee samples evaluated was higher than those reported by Bobková et al.
As reported in other studies 34 , roasting favors an increase in phenol content in coffee beans. However, when the time is prolonged after 5 or 9 min depending on the variety of coffee , a decrease in these compounds is observed, which could be due to the degradation of chlorogenic acid, one of the most important phenols in coffee 11 ; caffeic acid, on the other hand, is not affected by temperatures below °C.
Previous studies have found that green coffee beans have higher antioxidant activity than roasted beans 11 , This study clarifies the phenomenon, revealing that in the first minutes there is an increase in antioxidant capacity; however, if the time is prolonged more than 9 min , the antioxidant capacity decreases to values lower than the initial values.
The ABTS and DPPH radicals allow slightly different approaches to measure antioxidant activity. DPPH reacts with polyphenols but not with phenolic acids Therefore, the sharp decrease in the kinetic models of antioxidant activity could be due to the degradation of phenolic compounds and the formation of phenolic acids, which are captured by ABTS, whose curves reduce less as the roasting time increases Figure 2.
The initial increase in phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity of coffee beans during roasting occurs because temperature facilitates the release and generation of antioxidant compounds However, higher temperatures and roasting times may not only degrade bioactive compounds but also generate undesirable compounds in beverages, such as acrylamides This allows us to highlight the importance of the development of roasting models that seek to obtain coffee beverages rich in bioactive compounds but low in compounds harmful to health Although unroasted green coffee with low roast degrees has a higher phenol content and greater bioactive properties 39 , one of the purposes of roasting is to generate aromatic compounds that confer great sensory acceptance.
Therefore, roasting modalities should seek to obtain beverages with high acceptance and with the greatest amount of bioactive compounds 34 , as assessed via sensory analysis techniques with panelists or instrumentals Nine phenolic compounds were detected; for seven of these compounds, their concentration tended to increase Figures 4A—F, I , although the concentration of four compounds Figures 4B, D, F, I began to decrease during the roasting process.
The behavior of these compounds is similar to that reported in other studies of the phenol profile of green and roasted coffee, reporting that the concentrations of gallic acid and caffeic acid increase due to hydrolysis of chlorogenic acids 9 ; in this work it was shown that when the roasting time is prolonged more than 10 min , these compounds are affected and their content is reduced.
In contrast, the concentrations of two phenolic compounds Figures 4G, H decreased from the start of roasting, similar to what occurs with chlorogenic acid, the main phenolic compound in coffee, and other phenolic compounds with antioxidant potential 8 , 9 , 11 , As demonstrated in previous studies, the UV-Vis spectrum at certain wavelengths, allows observing changes in the content of phenolic compounds 25 , 42 , Most phenolic compounds are detected between and nm Therefore, changes in caffeine and chlorogenic acid content can be observed in that range of analysis, the content of which decreases as the degree of roasting of coffee increases During the roasting process coffee beans undergo physical, chemical, structural and sensory changes The hardness of coffee beans is affected by roasting conditions, in effect the beans lose strength and hardness, and become increasingly brittle This effect of roasting has been observed in the three varieties of coffee studied in this research.
Coffee beans of the Bourbon variety reduce their fracturability faster than the Caturra and Catimor varieties during roasting, which would influence the grinding process.
The differences between varieties could be attributed to the moisture content, anatomy and density of the beans, since these factors influence the increase in volume, porosity and pyrolysis reaction during roasting 47 , Both the phenolic content and the antioxidant capacity of coffee beans are affected by roasting.
Both increase up to minutes 5 and 9 depending on the variety and then decrease to concentrations below the initial value when roasting lasts longer than necessary. Changes in antioxidant compounds during roasting depend on the variety and the physicochemical characteristics of the coffee bean.
The cubic mathematical model is the one that best fits the changes in phenolic and antioxidant compounds. The hardness of the coffee bean also decreases with roasting. Finally, it is confirmed that the roasting process negatively affects bioactive compounds and increases the fracturability of coffee beans, elements that should be taken into account when developing roasting profiles in the industry.
MM and SC: conceptualization. MM and PM-C: methodology. SC, MM, and PM-C: formal analysis, research and writing—preparing the original draft, and writing—revision and editing.
SC: funding acquisition. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers.
Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Bosso H, Barbalho S, de Alvares Goulart R, Otoboni A. Green coffee: economic relevance and a systematic review of the effects on human health.
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But with all Peanut allergy symptoms coffee options Nutritional programs are Post-workout nutrition for sports performance for Caffejne attention, how do you know antioxidxnts to look for to Nutritional programs antioxixants healthiest blend possible? Type 2 Diabetes Caffeine and antioxidants, coronary heart disease, alzheimer'sfatty liver disease Peanut allergy symptoms all of these diseases and Caffeine and antioxidants have a far Cafgeine chance of occurring antiozidants regular coffee drinkers. Multiple laboratory studies have gone on as well to determine just what it is about coffee that makes it so good for us. As we live busy lives on a bustling planet, different factors can put stress on our bodies—from our choices of what to eat and drink to the very air we breathe. These stressors create excessive buildup of the byproducts of oxygen and nitrogen reactions in our bodies to produce compounds called free radicals. Nobody can completely avoid free radicals since they are everywhere, but too many free radicals can lead to health problems in the long run.
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