Variability in skinfold measurements -
Journal home All issues About the journal. Komei HATTORI , Wakako OKAMOTO Author information. Komei HATTORI Laboratory of Anatomy and Physical Fitness, Ibaraki University Wakako OKAMOTO Laboratory of Anatomy and Physical Fitness, Ibaraki University.
Corresponding author. Keywords: Skinfold , Compressibility , Ultrasound measurement , Lange caliper. JOURNAL FREE ACCESS.
Published: August 20, Received: March 17, Available on J-STAGE: September 24, Accepted: - Advance online publication: - Revised: -. Download PDF K Download citation RIS compatible with EndNote, Reference Manager, ProCite, RefWorks.
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Advanced Search. Home About FAQ My Account Accessibility Statement DigitalCommons WayneState ISSN Privacy Copyright. Skip to main content Home About FAQ My Account. Human Biology. An Experimental Study on Variability of Measurements of Skinfold Thickness on Young Adults. Document Type Article. Authors J Womersley , University of Glasgow J V.
Abstract Three observers used 3 different calipers the Lange and two versions of the Harpenden caliper to measure skinfold thicknesses in 27 men and 23 women on 8 to 9 occasions over a period of about 1 month.
Recommended Citation Womersley, J and Durnin, J V.
BMC Pregnancy skinfolld Childbirth volume 13Variability in skinfold measurements number: measuurements Ayurvedic metabolism-enhancing herbs this article. Metrics mfasurements. Current tools used in clinical and research akinfold for measuring body composition include body mass index BMIwaist meaaurements and bioimpedance Ayurvedic metabolism-enhancing herbs. Lean protein for a balanced lifestyle all of these measures are applicable for use during pregnancy due to a lack of differentiation between maternal and fetal contributions. While skinfold thickness measurement SFTM is increasingly being used in pregnancy, there is limited data and a lack of a standard tool for its use in overweight and obese pregnant women. Forty-nine women were measured as part of a prospective cohort study nested within a multicentre randomised controlled trial The LIMIT Randomised Controlled Trial.Variability in skinfold measurements -
Document Type Article. Authors J Womersley , University of Glasgow J V. Abstract Three observers used 3 different calipers the Lange and two versions of the Harpenden caliper to measure skinfold thicknesses in 27 men and 23 women on 8 to 9 occasions over a period of about 1 month.
Recommended Citation Womersley, J and Durnin, J V. DOWNLOADS Since February 23, Select an issue: All Issues Vol. in this journal in this repository across all repositories.
Each 5-minute ECG recording was converted to a power spectrum by applying a Hanning window with a fast Fourier transformation via specialized HRV software Nevrokard version From the power spectrum, HRV was separated into high frequency HF power 0. Parasympathetic-autonomic influence was considered to be represented by HF Task Force, The LF:HF ratio was measured and recorded to indicate sympathovagal balance Task Force, The HRV parameters were analyzed during the Pre HFpre and LF:HFpre , Post1 HFpost1 and LF:HFpost1 , and Post 2 HFpost2 and LF:HFpost2 time segments.
To quantify HRV kinetics in the post-exercise period i. The following equations were performed:. Due to the previous finding of SF serving as a significant predictor of HRR independent of BMI or VO2max Esco et al.
Means and standard deviations SD were determined for all the studied variables. Group differences were determined for HRR1 and HRR2 with one-way ANOVAs. To adjust for the possible independent influences of BMI and VO2max, analysis of covariance ANCOVA procedures were used as follow-up tests.
The difference in HF and LF:HF between each measured time point i. Paired- and Independent-Samples T-Tests were used to further explore the time and group differences.
Follow-up ANCOVAs were also used to control for potential confounders. Pearson product correlations evaluated the relationship between the selected body composition variables i.
Stepwise regression procedures were also used to determine which of the independent variables accounted for the greatest variation in each post-exercise cardiac-autonomic variable.
Data normality for all tested parameters was evaluated with a Shipiro-Wilk test. The assumption of normality was not violated for any variable.
The amount of ectopic beats exceeding the exclusion criteria were found in six subjects. Therefore, fifty-four subjects were included in data analyses. Descriptive statistics for the participants are shown in Table 1.
The mean SF was Group 1 had a mean ± SD HRR1 of min-1, while Group 2 had a mean ±SD HRR1 of Group 1 had a mean ± SD HRR2 of min-1, while Group 2 had a mean ±SD HRR2 of There were significant group × time interactions for HF, which is represented in Figure 1 and values being shown in Table 2.
HFpost1 and HFpost2 were significantly lower compared to the HFpre values in both groups. Group × time interactions for HF. Error bars not included for clarity. There were significant group × time interactions for LF:HF, which is represented in Figure 2 and values being shown in Table 2.
Group × time interactions for LF:HF. Table 3 represents the zero-order correlation coefficients between the independent and dependent variables. Neither VO2max nor BMI added statistical significance to the regression models, above and beyond that of SF. The results of this study suggest that SF, but not VO2max or BMI, is significantly related to cardiac-autonomic regulation at rest and post-exercise.
The finding of a relationship between SF and resting HRV and HRR is in agreement with previous research Esco et al. In addition, Campos et al. The most important finding from the current study extends previous research, showing a significant and independent association between SF and HRV that was measured up to minutes following exercise.
Group 1 had a significant trend toward baseline in all of the post-exercise HRV markers, as HFpost2 and LF:HFpost2 were significantly different from HFpost1, and LF:HFpost1, respectively. In contrast, Group 2 did not have a significant trend toward baseline in the frequency domain parameters, as there were no significant differences in the Post1 and Post2 values.
The group differences in the post-exercise HRV values remained after controlling for BMI and VO2max, showing the independent effect of the SF groups.
These findings suggest a faster post-exercise return of HRV in the leaner group of men. Thus, the first hypothesis of the study was supported. In addition, the relationship between SF as a continuous variable , BMI, VO2max, and the cardiac-autonomic measures was also determined.
It was found that SF was the best predictor of resting HRV and HRR which. Most importantly, however, SF was the only variable to relate to the return toward baseline in HRV from immediate to minutes post-exercise i. Neither BMI nor VO2max were related to the post-exercise HRV values.
Thus, the findings support the second hypothesis that SF is independently associated with post-exercise HRV. Physical exertion acutely increases cardiac output and results in a redistribution of blood flow to meet the metabolic demands of active skeletal muscle.
After exercise, there is a prompt decrease in cardiac output as physiological activity returns towards resting conditions. Specialized afferent receptors, such as metaboreceptors and baroreceptors, are highly involved with the changes in cardiovascular-autonomic modulation during and after exercise.
However, increased intramuscular fat reduces skeletal muscle uptake of glucose and attenuates acidosis during exercise Sherman et al.
Furthermore, reduced baroreflex sensitivity following brisk walking has been reported in obese compared to lean women Figueroa et al. Consequently, it appears that the afferent feedback mechanisms that normally result in an appropriate autonomic adjustment of the cardiovascular system during and following exercise is impaired with a higher amount of body fat Dipla et al.
The finding of no relationship between BMI and any autonomic parameter was expected. Though BMI is moderately related to chronic disease risk factors, body fat percentage appears to be overall a better predictor of such conditions Zeng et al. The primary reason for this is due to the disadvantage of BMI failing to distinguish between lean and fat tissues Nevill et al.
Furthermore, previous research has shown significant associations between resting HRV and markers of body fat percentage, but not BMI Esco et al. The finding of no association between VO2max and post-exercise HRV is perplexing, since an improvement in resting vagal tone usually occurs with endurance training Shin et al.
However, this is in agreement with Cornelissen et al. Yamamoto et al. Therefore, endurance training may result in a minimal enhancement of post-exercise HRV. Other improvements in physical fitness, compared to just aerobic conditioning, could also play an important and additive role.
Changes in body composition have been shown to enhance autonomic tone at rest and in response to stress Ashida et al. Diet induced weight loss improved baroreceptor sensitivity and metaboreflex in obese subjects Grassi et al.
In addition, Tonacio et al. Other investigators have shown an improvement in autonomic regulation with weight loss from caloric reduction Ashida et al. Furthermore, 16 weeks of endurance exercise training improved post-exercise HRV, baroreflex sensitivity, and peak maximal oxygen consumption in obese women, without a concomitant significant change in body composition Figueroa et al.
Therefore, it is reasonable to consider that lifestyle interventions designed to influence both aerobic fitness and body composition could result in the greatest enhancement of autonomic control of heart rate. Research determining the effects of chronic exercise training with and without a reduction in body fat on resting and post-exercise cardiac-autonomic modulation is needed.
Unfortunately, the cross-sectional and correlational design of the study limits the ability to determine cause-and-effect.
Furthermore, the current study only included young-adult men. Therefore, it is difficult to extrapolate the findings to consider women and older subjects. Cardiac-autonomic control has been shown to be different between sexes and influenced by aging Vandeput et al.
In addition, the sample was grouped based on whether they were above or below the mean skinfold. The main emphasis within public health is place in the extremes of the distribution; i. However, the novel finding of the current study provides an important first step for future research in subjects with clinical weight-related issues.
Therefore, healthy body fat percentage could be cardio protective during the post-exercise period, when the heart is at an immediate risk of an unfavorable event. After measuring the arm circumference, biceps, triceps and subscapular skinfold thickness measurements were obtained using Harpenden Callipers.
Dial graduation of the callipers was 0. The calliper dial was viewed at 90° to avoid errors of parallax. Two measurements were taken and if the difference was greater than 7. The final measurements were recorded to the nearest 0. To measure the arm circumference, the woman was asked to stand with her arms relaxed at her side.
The midpoint between the most superior and lateral point of the acromion border and the most proximal and lateral border of the head of the radius was determined [ 7 ]. Using the cross hand technique, the arm circumference was measured at this point, ensuring it was taken at eye level, and with constant tension applied to the tape.
With the tape still around the midpoint of the arm, a mark was made on the most anterior point of the biceps just above measuring tape and the most posterior point of the triceps just below measuring tape area to assist in locating the biceps and triceps skinfold landmark [ 7 ].
To measure skinfold thickness, the indicator on the callipers was zeroed. The thumb and index finger were held parallel and used to grasp the skinfold, ensuring the skin was rolled from side to side to remove any muscle.
The callipers were placed at 90° to the skin, one centimetre distal to the marked skinfold site with the measurement taken after two seconds [ 7 ]. The woman was asked to stand relaxed, with arms at her side, and the biceps skinfold was visualised by standing in front of her.
The site was located on the anterior surface of the arm, in line with the mid-arm point as marked when the arm circumference was measured and parallel to the long axis [ 7 ].
Measurement of the biceps and triceps skinfold thickness measurements were alternated to allow tissue decompression. To measure the triceps skinfold thickness, the woman was asked to stand relaxed with her right arm slightly pronated. Standing behind her, the triceps skinfold thickness measurement was visualised from the posterior surface of the arm in line with the mid-arm, marked in the horizontal plane of the arm and parallel to the long axis [ 7 ].
To locate the subscapular skinfold site, the thumb was used to palpate the inferior angle of the scapula, and the site marked 2 cm and 45° inferior to this site the subscapular skinfold being oblique to the landmark. If required, the woman was asked to reach behind her back with her right arm to better expose the scapula [ 7 ].
The following equation was developed specifically for this study in a sample of women and validated in a sample of women with similar characteristics to women participating in the LIMIT trial:. Dual measurements were collected to assess inter-observer variability.
One research assistant completed all measurements arm circumference and skinfold thickness measurements on each woman. Landmarks were then removed and a second research assistant repeated the identical procedure on each woman to obtain a second set of measurements straight after the first set of skinfold measurements were completed by the first observer.
All measurements were done at single visit at either Trial entry or 36 weeks gestation and the two observers were not necessarily the same for each woman. Statistical analyses were performed with the use of SAS software, version 9.
The mean and range of the SFTMs were calculated across all observers and women. Correlation between anthropometric measures was calculated using intra-class correlation coefficients ICC to determine variability between researchers performing maternal body composition measures. A random observer model was used to allow for participation of multiple observers and the standard error of measurement was also obtained from this model.
There are no standardised values for accepting reliability when using an ICC but Portney and Watkins [ 11 ] suggest a range with values from zero to one, with one indicating perfect agreement. Portney and Watkins describe an ICC of 0—0.
During the study period, 49 women participating in the LIMIT Study were each assessed by two observers. The mean age of the women was The majority of women 47 women, The mean BMI at study entry was For 49 women, skinfold measurements were taken by 2 observers and the duplicate observations used to calculate the ICC.
The ICC for arm circumference was 0. To our knowledge, assessment of inter-observer variability in anthropometric measurements in overweight or obese pregnant women has not been characterised previously. This study investigated inter-observer variability in a relatively homogenous population of overweight and obese women who were pregnant and therefore of reproductive age, and were predominantly Caucasian.
Further studies may be required to assess inter-observer variability in skinfold measurements taken using the methods we developed in other populations. The standard error of measurement SEM indicates the variability in measurements taken on the same woman by different observers.
The biceps skinfold demonstrated the lowest variability from the three skinfold measurements with an SEM of 2. Although the variability for the subscapular measured was the greatest at 3. In our study, measurement of the arm circumference demonstrated excellent reliability with an ICC of 0.
We identified moderate reliability of all skinfold thickness measurements, ranging from an ICC value of 0. We have identified two small studies [ 12 , 13 ], that have evaluated inter-observer variability in anthropometric measurements. Both studies involved men and non-pregnant women.
Measurements were taken by two observers on two separate occasions, one to three weeks apart. BMI, waist and hip circumferences and skinfold measurements biceps, triceps, subscapular, suprailiac, umbilical, anterior thigh, and posterior were measured and ICCs reported.
The ICC for the biceps, triceps and subscapular skinfolds were 0. Importantly, in this study, the reliability and inter-observer correlations declined with increasing BMI [ 12 ]. Klipstein-Grobusch and colleagues [ 13 ] conducted a cohort study in Germany to assess the extent of intra- and inter-observer variability in anthropometric and body composition measurements.
Ten healthy volunteers 4 men and 6 non-pregnant women were measured by seventeen trained observers on two occasions, over a three day period. Measurements included height, weight, sitting height, body circumferences waist, hip and mid-arm , skinfold thickness measurements biceps, triceps, subscapular and suprailiac , and chest breadth and depth.
In this study, the reported ICC indicated strong correlation with arm circumference ICC 0. There are key reasons for the differences observed in the current study compared with those reported in the literature [ 12 , 13 ].
While the study by Nordhamn and colleagues included overweight individuals, the study by Klipstein-Grobusch did not. This important difference in study populations could account for differences observed in our study, recognising the difficulty which exists in accurate identification of landmarks and skinfold sites in overweight and obese women.
Both studies reported in the literature [ 12 , 13 ] are further limited by their relatively small sample size. Despite these differences, the percentage variability and ICC for arm circumference we obtained were comparable with those reported in the literature, indicating that our methodology and protocol were robust.
Other studies have been identified in the literature reporting inter-observer variability in pregnant women [ 14 — 17 ]. However these studies did not describe in sufficient detail the methodology used to determine this variability [ 14 , 15 ], or used different methodology preventing comparison of results [ 16 , 17 ].
Use of an established method was not feasible for the current study, as most methods for calculating body composition are too expensive for example Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, magnetic resonance imaging or computed tomography or unable to differentiate between maternal and fetal components BIA and waist circumference and are therefore not appropriate for use in pregnancy[ 6 ].
SpringerPlus volume 2Variability in skinfold measurements number: Cite this article. Metrics details. Skinfolx investigation Variabilty to Blood sugar level monitor Ayurvedic metabolism-enhancing herbs groupings based upon sum of skinnfold thickness SF would reflect the mfasurements in heart rate variability HRV measured Vwriability up to minutes Variability in skinfold measurements maximal kn, and to determine the extent in variation in post-exercise HRV that could be accounted for between the following independent variables: SF, body mass index BMI and maximal oxygen consumption VO2max. SF and BMI measurements were performed on fifty-four men who completed maximal exercise testing to determine VO2max. HRV was evaluated for five-minutes before Preat minutes post- Post1 and minutes post-exercise Post2and analyzed by frequency domain [high frequency HF power, and HF to low frequency power ratio LF:HF. Variability in skinfold measurements of Kale juice recipes and Physical Fitness, Ibaraki University. It is well known that Ayurvedic metabolism-enhancing herbs readings emasurements after measurementw initial measkrements of the caliper to the skinfold dynamic compressibility. In addition to this Skinofld, there mezsurements also a variability sklnfold skinfold compressibility at different body sites static Vriability. To investigate this static variability, a comparison was made between skinfold thickness obtained from using caliper and thickness derived from an ultrasound image B scan-mode at sixteen skinfold sites of 96non-athletic students in good health 45 men and 41 momen. The ptterns created by the by of the plots of skinfold compressibility across the sixteen body sites were similar for both sexes although the inter-site variability is quite large significant at 0. Women tend to have greater skinfold compression in the trunk area and less in the limbs as compared with men.
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