Because most endurance training programs include a great deal of training off the track, safety when running near traffic and other hazards is an important consideration.

Overtraining and heat-related problems are significant issues in these events; avoiding these situations is an important part of safety and injury prevention.

Hydration, environmental conditions, and nutrition are also more significant in the endurance events because of their longer duration.

Dehydration thickens the blood and makes it harder to pump think water versus molasses. On average, males can lose 2. In warm weather athletes should restrict their fluid loss to 1 to 2 percent of their total body weight.

Each pound about 0. Runners should consume 16 to 24 ounces to ml of fluid containing electrolytes per pound about 0. These figures are estimates; there is great variability among individuals and environmental conditions.

In addition, for optimal performance for events lasting longer than one hour, athletes should consume to calories per hour during the event either as fluids or in addition to fluids. Performance in endurance events can be significantly affected by extremes in climate.

In regard to heat, the longer the event, the greater the impact. In the case of the marathon, for every 5 degrees the temperature rises above 50 degrees Fahrenheit or about 3 degrees it rises above 10 °C , the athlete's final time typically increases by about 0.

If the temperature is above The body sheds heat through the evaporation of sweat. When humidity is high, evaporative cooling is inhibited, and so is the body's ability to shed heat. Athletes on restrictive energy intakes should aim for the high end of this recommendation.

Race Morning: Include grams of protein in the hour leading up to race start to help stabilize blood sugars. Common pre-race protein sources include peanut butter, non-fat milk or yogurt, eggs, and energy bars.

During Race: If out on a training or race course longer than 4 hours, aim for up to 5 grams of protein hourly. Common sources include sports drinks, energy bars, as well as whole food alternatives like turkey jerky and peanut butter sandwiches.

Post-Race: A range of grams of protein taken immediately post-race is sufficient to support muscle repair and immune function post-event. Common sources include milk, meal replacement shakes, and specialized recovery sports drinks.

Replacement of electrolytes becomes instrumental in endurance bouts lasting longer than 1 hour, especially when training and racing in hot and humid conditions. The principle electrolytes include sodium generally bound to chloride , potassium, magnesium, and calcium.

These electrolytes are involved in metabolic activities and are essential to the normal function of all cells, including muscle function. Pre-Race: Athletes vulnerable to muscle cramping and fatigue as well as those competing in heat may benefit from increasing salt intake in the few days leading up to race day.

Many of the carbo-loading options, such as pretzels, sports drinks, breads, and cereals, accommodate this. Similarly, on race morning, choosing saltier carbohydrate sources, such as a salt bagel, and sipping on a sports drink rather than plain water may help. Salt loading is not recommended for athletes on blood pressure medications.

During Race: Aim for mg of sodium per standard bike bottle of water consumed ounces as well as smaller amounts of potassium, magnesium, and calcium.

Note that too much sodium can lead to bloating and GI discomfort so be sure to account for all your sources, including sports drinks mg per 8 oz , energy gels mg per packet and chews mg per 3 pieces , salt packets ~ mg per packet , and electrolyte capsules ~ mg per capsule.

Post-Race: Sipping on a sports drink, rather than plain water, post-race will facilitate optimal rehydration of muscles, including replacement of lost electrolytes. Training for the ultra-endurance consists of several aspects including: physiology, biomechanics, sports psychology, racing and pacing tactics and injury and illness Zaryski and Smith, and applies the same training and general adaptation principles, like training for any other sport, requiring the application of frequent and progressively overloading stressors to the athlete to stimulate adaptation and supercompensation so that the following training sessions are completed at a higher intensity or a longer duration Selye, ; Zaryski and Smith, ; Verkhoshansky and Siff, ; Haff and Triplett, Additionally, relationships between training and performance decrements, and sub-optimal nutritional intake are well supported Thomas, Erdman and Burke, ; Burke et al.

The most challenging aspect in performance nutrition for the ultra-runner is to meet their daily energy requirements to augment performance and recovery Nikolaidis et al.

These daily energy requirements are governed by several factors including basal metabolic rate De Lorenzo et al. The total amount of energy expended during a single training session is inversely proportional to the duration of that session Costa, Hoffman and Stellingwerff, , however other factors including fitness level, training intensity, environmental conditions and training course landscape Costa et al.

In terms of the metabolic pathway, UER places extensive demands on the aerobic metabolism to efficiently utilise stored muscle and liver glycogen along with fat-oxidation, with a substantial increase in the utilisation of free fatty acids for ATP production with increasing running distance, mainly due to the decreased availability of carbohydrates and stored glycogen as duration increases Alcock et al.

Tiller et al. This is an important factor as glycogen stores and circulating blood glucose availability are key limiting factors of ultra-endurance performance Costa, Hoffman and Stellingwerff, ; Jeukendrup, Protein intake relative to body mass is recommended to range between 1.

Protein distribution is also an important aspect for endurance athletes, with regular every 3-hours moderately sized 20g feedings augmenting muscle protein synthesis more efficiently than other methods Areta et al.

This intake of protein can be supplemented with carbohydrates 1. Similarly, ingestion of casein protein prior to sleep may also facilitate better recovery for athletes Snijders et al.

With regards to fat intake, unless targeting the optimisation of fat-oxidation through a ketogenic diet, ultra-endurance athletes should consume between 1.

However, the main nutritional goal of training for ultra-endurance athletes needs to be increasing their ability to oxidise fat, thus preserving glycogen stores during ultra-endurance performance Tiller et al. This can be achieved in two ways: train-low, compete-high and ketogenic dietary preferences Mata et al.

However, the body does need some fat to function effectively. Fats that are healthier include:. Just as it is important to know what to eat and when, endurance athletes also benefit from understanding how much to eat. This ensures that you obtain the needed nutrients in the right amount without consuming too many calories and potentially gaining weight.

Intake recommendations for endurance athletes are:  . When calculating your body weight, one kilogram is equal to 2. So, a pound person weighs roughly 68 kilograms divided by 2.

If you exercise intensely for more than three or four hours at a time, you need to be mindful of your hydration needs and drink water before, during, and after you exercise.

Don't rely on thirst to tell you when to drink during exercise. By the time you feel thirsty, you're already dehydrated. It's best to drink small amounts often, rather than gulping a lot at once. Get into the habit of weighing yourself before and after long training sessions to determine your individual hydration needs and to learn how different weather and training conditions may affect you.

Another simple way to determine your post-workout hydration status is to monitor your urine output and color. A large amount of light-colored, diluted urine most likely means you are well-hydrated. A small amount of dark-colored, highly concentrated urine may mean you are dehydrated and need to drink more water.

The following tips can help you stay on top of your fluid needs while exercising:. Rehydrate by drinking about 24 ounces of water for every kilogram 2. This helps support optimal performance, both physically and mentally.

A quick and easy option is to consume an electrolyte-containing sports drink during the training or event. This can help reduce the risk of developing hyponatremia , which is water intoxication caused by below-normal sodium levels.

Some types of protein bars also contain electrolytes. Every athlete will have their own unique fueling and refueling needs and preferences. By experimenting with different approaches, you will find the approach that works best for you.

Try various foods and food combinations before, during, and after your workouts. Vary the timing of your food intake and the amount you eat as well and, over time, you will be able to determine your optimal refueling style. Burke L, Hawley J, Jeukendrup A, Morton J, Stellingwerff T, Maughan R.

Toward a common understanding of diet-exercise strategies to manipulate fuel availability for training and competition preparation in endurance sport. Intl J Sport Nutr Exerc Metabol. Masson G, Lamarche B. Many non-elite multisport endurance athletes do not meet sports nutrition recommendations for carbohydrates.

App Physiol Nutr Metab. Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Choose healthy fats. Potgieter S. Sport nutrition: A review of the latest guidelines for exercise and sport nutrition from the American College of Sport Nutrition, the International Olympic Committee and the International Society for Sports Nutrition.

S African J Clin Nutr. Hospital for Special Surgery. Baranauskas M, Stukas R, Tubelis L, et al. Nutritional habits among high-performance endurance athletes. Vitale K, Getzin A. Nutrition and supplement update for the endurance athlete: Review and recommendations.

Anti-Doping Agency. Fat as fuel - fat intake in athletes. Fluids and hydration. Kerksick CM, Wilborn CD, Roberts MD, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. Pruna G, Hoffman J, McCormack W, et al. Effect of L-Alayl-L-Glutamine and electrolyte ingestion on cognitive function and reaction time following endurance exercise.

Europ J Sport Science. Peri A, Thompson C, Verbalis J. Disorders of fluid and electrolyte metabolism: Focus on hyponatremia.

Front Horm Res. By Elizabeth Quinn, MS Elizabeth Quinn is an exercise physiologist, sports medicine writer, and fitness consultant for corporate wellness and rehabilitation clinics.

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List of Partners vendors. Sports Nutrition. Cold weather and high-altitude sports have certainly been in the news recently. Have you ever wondered if these environments influence nutritional requirements and, therefore, may also have an impact on athletic performance?

There is an increasing body of research suggesting that there are many nutritional issues related to cold and high-altitude environments that, if not appropriately dealt with, may seriously impact performance even in the most highly conditioned athlete. It is also important to consider that warm high-altitude environments think Mexico City, altitude 7, feet; 2, meters , may also impart a performance advantage because of lower air resistance that an athlete must overcome, provided the athlete is sufficiently adapted to the altitude and is not suffering from one of several forms of altitude sickness.

What are the Potential Nutritional Issues? Athletes who suddenly find themselves at an altitude exceeding meters are likely to experience nausea and loss of appetite, both symptoms of acute mountain sickness. This may sound like a minor issue, but failure to eat and drink enough increases the potential for poor muscle glycogen storage, which is needed for high intensity activity.

This problem is intensified because carbohydrates are used at a faster rate at high-altitude—dramatically increasing the risk of early fatigue.

Failure to consume sufficient fluids is also a significant issue, due to higher urine production at higher altitude, with higher risk of dehydration and an associated early fatigue. In fact, trying to maintain a good hydration state in cold and high-altitude environments is just as difficult as maintaining fluid balance in hot and humid environments because of the increased urine production and the voluntary failure to drink sufficient fluids.

There may even be an increased risk of dehydration from high levels of water loss if the clothing worn is particularly heat retaining or heavy sporting equipment is being carried i. There is no substitute for adapting to the cold and high-altitude environment.

Athletes competing in this environment should try to spend at least four days in this environment prior to competition. This allows the body to make appropriate adaptations to resolve acute mountain sickness. The high-altitude environment is lower in oxygen, so assuring good iron status with no sign of iron deficiency or anemia is important.

If performing endurance activity in this environment, spending even more time at high-altitude is important to improve red-cell concentration and oxygen-carrying capacity.

Of course, increasing red-cell concentration increases the requirement for selected nutrients, mandating a diet rich in high-iron, high-vitamin B12 foods red meats, etc.

Frequent eating at planned timed intervals, with a focus on high carbohydrate foods is important because carbohydrate requires less oxygen to metabolize for energy than either protein or fat. Insufficient energy intake reduces both strength and endurance, both critical factors in athletic performance.

Frequent eating requires advanced planning to make certain there are planned eating times during the day about every three hours and available foods that can be easily accessed. Because of the nausea commonly experienced at the beginning of the adaptation process, eating smaller amounts with greater frequency may be a useful strategy to help assure adequate intakes.

Athletes should monitor how much fluid was consumed and add an amount needed to sustain body weight. If the athlete cannot carry fluid with them, there should be known and available hydration stations that the athlete can access with ease and in high frequency.

It is important to focus on the consumption of high carbohydrate foods to help optimize glycogen stores, which are used at a higher rate in cold and high-altitude environments.

Having frequent carbohydrate consumption will also help to sustain blood sugar and, therefore, mental function the brain is a high consumer of blood sugar.

It will also provide a source of fuel to working muscles that does not require oxygen to metabolize. Plan so that the athlete never gets hungry or thirsty and has enough available energy to compensate for the extra that must be used at high-altitude.

Monounsaturated fats are the best fats from a health standpoint, in that they help increase the body's HDL or "good" cholesterol, reducing the risk of heart attack or stroke. Adding omega-3 fatty acids reduces inflammation and promotes brain and nervous system function. Proteins are primarily used to maintain and repair muscle.

Though not generally thought about as fuel when endurance training, research shows that these types of foods are needed in slightly higher amounts when engaging in this type of exercise.

Think of protein as providing your muscle the strength it needs to keep pushing through. Proteins also help your muscle recover after a grueling training session or competitive event.

Before getting into the best sources of carbs, fat, and protein for endurance athletes, it's important to know when to consume each of these sources for optimal energy and fuel. This can be broken down by pre- and post-training recommendations, as well as suggestions for refueling during an endurance training or event.

Eating three to four hours before engaging in endurance training or events helps the body start off with a full fuel tank. Often referred to as "loading," the best food sources for this pre-training meal are complex carbohydrates , or carbs that take the body longer to digest.

Glycogen stores have a limited supply and get used up rather quickly—within about 90 minutes to two hours—during high-intensity exercise. If not adequately replenished, fatigue sets in and the athlete needs to slow down or risk "hitting the wall.

That's why it is important to consume carbohydrates throughout long training sessions or endurance events. The best carbs for this purpose are simple carbs , or carbs that the body can digest rather quickly.

After the endurance training session or event, the body needs to refill its energy tank. More carbs can assist with this, but protein is important at this point too, providing your muscles the nutrients needed to adequately recover. Many of the best post-workout snacks provide the carbohydrates needed to rebuild your energy stores.

Each category of macronutrients carbs, protein, and fat includes certain foods that offer higher nutritional value, making them better choices for fueling and refueling the body.

Here are a few to consider. Offering a mix of carbohydrate sources, for example, these dietician-recommended energy chews, gels, and bars help provide sustained energy.

Since pre-training eating involves consuming complex carbs, healthier foods that fall into this category include:. To continue high-level exercise for extended periods of time, athletes benefit from fueling their body during the training session with easily digestible or "fast" carbohydrates.

Some good mid-exercise refueling options that won't weigh you down include:. Protein helps the body heal, making it a great after-training food source. Healthier protein food options include:.

However, the body does need some fat to function effectively. Fats that are healthier include:. Just as it is important to know what to eat and when, endurance athletes also benefit from understanding how much to eat. This ensures that you obtain the needed nutrients in the right amount without consuming too many calories and potentially gaining weight.

Intake recommendations for endurance athletes are:  . When calculating your body weight, one kilogram is equal to 2. So, a pound person weighs roughly 68 kilograms divided by 2. If you exercise intensely for more than three or four hours at a time, you need to be mindful of your hydration needs and drink water before, during, and after you exercise.

Don't rely on thirst to tell you when to drink during exercise. By the time you feel thirsty, you're already dehydrated. It's best to drink small amounts often, rather than gulping a lot at once. Get into the habit of weighing yourself before and after long training sessions to determine your individual hydration needs and to learn how different weather and training conditions may affect you.

Another simple way to determine your post-workout hydration status is to monitor your urine output and color. A large amount of light-colored, diluted urine most likely means you are well-hydrated.

A small amount of dark-colored, highly concentrated urine may mean you are dehydrated and need to drink more water.

The following tips can help you stay on top of your fluid needs while exercising:. Rehydrate by drinking about 24 ounces of water for every kilogram 2. This helps support optimal performance, both physically and mentally.

A quick and easy option is to consume an electrolyte-containing sports drink during the training or event. This can help reduce the risk of developing hyponatremia , which is water intoxication caused by below-normal sodium levels.

Some types of protein bars also contain electrolytes. Every athlete will have their own unique fueling and refueling needs and preferences. By experimenting with different approaches, you will find the approach that works best for you. Try various foods and food combinations before, during, and after your workouts.

Vary the timing of your food intake and the amount you eat as well and, over time, you will be able to determine your optimal refueling style. Burke L, Hawley J, Jeukendrup A, Morton J, Stellingwerff T, Maughan R.

Toward a common understanding of diet-exercise strategies to manipulate fuel availability for training and competition preparation in endurance sport. Intl J Sport Nutr Exerc Metabol. Masson G, Lamarche B. Many non-elite multisport endurance athletes do not meet sports nutrition recommendations for carbohydrates.

App Physiol Nutr Metab. Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Choose healthy fats. Potgieter S. Sport nutrition: A review of the latest guidelines for exercise and sport nutrition from the American College of Sport Nutrition, the International Olympic Committee and the International Society for Sports Nutrition.

S African J Clin Nutr. Hospital for Special Surgery. Baranauskas M, Stukas R, Tubelis L, et al. Nutritional habits among high-performance endurance athletes. Vitale K, Getzin A. Electrolytes help to balance pH level, remove waste out of your cells and nutrients into cells, balance the amount of water in your body, and ensure that your nerves, muscles, heart, and brain function properly.

The last two functions are where sodium plays its largest role. We mostly consume sodium from food through table salt, which is a combination of sodium and chloride, and excrete it through urine and sweat. The level of sodium in your body can become too low or too high based on the amount of water in your body.

Certain medications, diarrhea, vomiting, sweating, and liver or kidney problems cause these imbalances. Athletes need more sodium because it is lost while sweating. Typically, those who are untrained, in the beginning stages of heat acclimation, and men lose more sweat.

Salt intake during intense training can also help prevent hyponatremia, or low sodium in the blood. Hyponatremia has become more prevalent in endurance events, especially ultra-endurance events or those who are on the course for longer periods of time.

Hyponatremia is a potentially life-threatening condition that can cause fatigue, dehydration, swelling, nausea, vomiting, seizures, confusion, slurred speech, moderate to severe muscle cramps, and losing consciousness, possibly leading to death.

Hyponatremia occurs when sweating causes disproportionate sodium loss or an excessive intake of plain water, which dilutes the level of sodium in the blood. We now know we need sodium for training and race day- but how much you need to avoid cramping and potentially hyponatremia is a bit more complicated.

The average American consumes between 8 to 12g of table salt per day, which is times more than the amount of sodium needed to replace everyday sodium losses from things like sweat, bowel movements, and urine.

This excessive consumption of sodium has lead to an increase in rates of hypertension. Hypertension affects over 3 million people in the US, and can increase risk for stroke, heart disease, and death.

Reducing sodium intake is the hallmark diet change for reducing blood pressure since salt makes your body retain water. The more extra water stored in your body, the higher your blood pressure rises. The recommendation for sodium for the general population is mg about 1 teaspoon of table salt , and for those with hypertension, it falls to mg per day.

But athletes require more salt than the general population. Unless an athlete has a contraindication to increasing salt intake like hypertension or kidney disease , most athletes should be liberal about consuming salt.

So how much salt do athletes need? For instance, studies following football and tennis players found sodium losses ranging from to 8, mg over two hours. Athletes who fall into these categories need to be replenishing their fluid and electrolytes consistently in the days before, during, and after exercise.

Athletes regularly training over an hour need to replenish lost sodium, and reducing sodium intake is the last thing someone training for a marathon or Ironman should do. Consume ounces of fluid, preferably water and a sports drink that contains sodium and other electrolytes.

If you are a salty sweater, be sure to include foods that also have sodium, either in your pre-workout meal or with sports foods. This should not be done for the first time on race day! You need to train with the nutrition you plan to race with, so experiment with how much fluid works and what types you like.

Try different brands and assess how you feel in the first minutes of your workout, halfway, and after your workout. If you felt sloshing, had cramping, or felt like you had to use the restroom the entire time, try a different brand. These are also great to combat flavor fatigue from all the sweet-heavy sports foods.

You should also be staying on top of hydration with a sports drink that contains you guessed it! Aim to drink ounces of water or a sports drink every minutes. As discussed above, your recommended amount of sodium during exercise depends on many factors.

New products like Base Electrolytes and Osmo Preload are a great way to get sodium in if you are a salty sweater. Taken before a long training session or tough workout, these work to combat the effects of electrolyte loss and increase recovery.