However, giving unopposed estrogen in postmenopausal women has a higher link to breast cancer, blood clots, and ovarian cancer [ 42 ].

Humans with the APOE ɛ 4 allele have an increased chance of developing AD. APOE ɛ 4 has been linked to increased cholesterol levels due to the aid of transport of cholesterol across the blood-brain barrier to neurons [ 43 ].

Researchers have proposed that increased cholesterol raises the risk of AD in people with the APOE ɛ 4 allele, and increased cholesterol has been associated with more oxidative stress through ROS [ 43 ]. Caffeine has been shown to reduce brain Aβ levels for early-onset familial AD in mice [ 15 ].

The FDA has cited about milligrams a day or equivalent to roughly 5 cups a day as an amount not generally associated with dangerous or negative effects [ 45 ]. However, too much caffeine consumption can cause adverse side effects such as tremors, palpitations and arrhythmias.

In an experiment conducted with human neuroblastoma cells, caffeine lowered reactive oxygen species production cultured cells with Aβ [ 44 ]. In addition, the study also illustrated an increased superoxide dismutase levels, and lowered malondialdehyde, a marker for oxidative stress levels significantly [ 43 ].

Turmeric has been known to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in the body. Turmeric is able to cross the blood-brain barrier and exhibit therapeutic potential via the inhibition of peroxidases, and decreases aggregation of Aβ and reduction of neuroinflammation [ 48 ].

A study conducted at UCLA demonstrated that a combination of macrophages and turmeric showed an improved uptake and ingestion of Aβ plaque in AD patients [ 49 ].

Turmeric has been found to reduce the release of ROS by stimulating neutrophils and inhibiting the activation of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF- α , IL-6, and IL-1β.

This leads to a decrease in the main mechanisms for the inflammation of cytokines. A study done in-vitro showed increased production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-4 in cultured microglia from mice that were treated with turmeric extract [ 50 ].

IL-4 is an anti-inflammatory cytokine that has been shown to reduce the production of inflammatory mediators in microglia such as TNF- α , and inhibit microglia activation [ 50 ]. Meta-analysis show that turmeric significantly reduces concentration of circulating IL-6, a pro inflammatory cytokine, with more apparent effects in patients with a higher degree of systemic inflammation [ 51 ].

Turmeric exposure also decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1, and TNF- α [ 53 ]. Turmeric has been shown to directly bind small Aβ species to block aggregation and fibril formation in vitro and in vivo [ 54 ]. Evidence shows that turmeric has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential to alleviate inflammation.

There is growing evidence indicating that there is an inflammatory component to AD [ 7, 9 ]. The release of inflammatory cytokines by activated microglia and astrocytes exacerbate inflammation in the AD brain [ 10 ].

In turn, this leads to not only increased Aβ aggregation, but also increased tau hyperphosphorylation [ 8, 9 ]. Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes have also been shown to intensify the role of inflammation [ 19, 20 ]. It has become clearer that inflammation is a pathogenesis for AD, and one method for decreasing inflammation is the role of antioxidants and nutrients.

Vitamin E has been shown to decrease the clinical progression of early AD symptoms, [ 30, 32 ] and a high intake of vitamin C and vitamin E from food may be associated with a lower incidence of AD [ 34 ].

Estrogen may show protective effects on the brain by inhibition of MMP-9 and downregulation of apoptosis and Aβ production [ 31 ]. Caffeine has been shown to reduce Aβ plaques in mice models [ 15 ].

Turmeric has antioxidant properties, which have shown to ease the aid of macrophages digesting Aβ plaques [ 49 ]. Turmeric binds directly to Aβ aggregated proteins, and blocks fibril formation via an increase in TH2 cytokines, and anti-inflammatory mediators IL-4, and IL-2 leading to a decrease in inflammatory mediators [ 50, 54 ].

Foods such as berries strawberries, raspberries, and blueberries , kale, dark chocolate, and pecans, which are rich in antioxidants, should be explored in moderation. Similarly, consumption of foods rich in vitamin E such as various nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, and green leafy vegetables could also be encouraged.

Additionally, studies have shown that the MIND diet Mediterranean- DASH diet has neuroprotective benefits and has been found to reduce the risk of AD, with clinical trials being evaluated in the United States [ 55, 56 ]. Although the USPSTF currently has no guidelines on the quantity of antioxidants one should consume, physicians should counsel their patients to increase their consumption of antioxidant rich foods to enhance their diet.

While in vitro animal and laboratory studies have shown that antioxidant rich nutrients can protect the brain from oxidative and inflammatory damage, there is limited data available from epidemiological studies and human clinical trials on the role of antioxidants on inflammation in AD.

Additionally, while age is the most important risk factor for AD, there is limited information on the modifiable risk factors for AD such as lower educational status [ 58 ]. AD research should focus on lifestyle medicine in conjunction with cognitive status and genomic testing form a complete portrait of the AD brain, antioxidants, and inflammation.

Future research should explore more precise and definitive mechanisms that trigger inflammation and solidify its role on AD, so adequate treatment can be targeted. One mechanism that has been proposed is immunizations with antibodies that bind Aβ; however, these immunizations have failed in phase three of clinical trials due to multiple issues [ 59 ].

One possible reason for this could have been the treatment was initiated too late in the disease process [ 59 ]. Personalized gene therapy with peptide modification and sequencing can be beneficial to treating AD [ 60, 61 ].

In , the NIH began sequencing the genomes of thousands of volunteers with AD [ 62 ]. The results of sequencing can hopefully pave the way for new and innovative treatments. Another therapy to further research is the role of other antioxidants and their effect of decreasing inflammation on the brain in AD patients.

Inflammation and AD are inevitably linked, with more research needed to solidify the mechanisms associated with them. Future research can elucidate the role of the intake of antioxidants, which can provide more insight on how to live a healthier, and hopefully, neurodegenerative-free lifestyle.

None of the authors have any financial interests, relationships or affiliations relevant to the subject of this manuscript. The views expressed in this publication represent those of the author s and do not necessarily represent the official views of HCA Healthcare or any of its affiliated entities.

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In , Denham Harmon proposed the free radical theory of aging. In , McCord and Fridovich discovered superoxide dismutase.

On the other hand, some research groups have discovered the involvement of free radicals in the fight against infection as part of the cellular immune response, where ROS and Reactive Nitrogen Species RNS act together with reactive halogen species to fight invading microorganisms.

Halliwell and Gutteridge reported in that ROS include both free-radical and non-radical oxygen derivatives. Acute inflammation is a short procedure that lasts from minutes to several days. The main signs of acute inflammation are the leakage of plasma proteins or fluid and the movement of leukocytes into the extravascular area.

These cellular and vascular responses are mediated by cell or plasma-derived chemical factors and are responsible for the classic clinical symptoms of inflammation, such as swelling, redness, pain, heat, and loss of function.

Although an inflammatory response can occur to any noxious stimulus, the characteristic of this process is the response of vascularized connective tissue. Inflammation is a vital response of the human immune system. Chronic inflammation can have several secondary biological response effects associated with increased risk of chronic diseases and disorders.

They can also occur with physical or chemical substances that cannot be broken down, as well as with some genetic susceptibility.

Persistence of foreign bodies, continuous exposure to chemicals, recurrent acute inflammation, or specific pathogens is all crucial causes of chronic inflammation. The molecular and cellular process of chronic inflammation depends on the type of inflamed cells and organ. Reactive Oxygen Species ROS : In a living system, the most important radicals are those derived from oxygen, and these are called reactive oxygen species.

ROS are formed as products of normal physiological conditions due to the partial reduction of molecular oxygen. ROS can be generated from several endogenous sources, such as xanthine oxidase, cytochrome oxidase, cyclooxygenase, mediated oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, catecholamine oxidation, mitochondrial oxidation, inflammation, phagocytosis, ischemia reperfusion injury, leukocyte activation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase, iron release, and the redox reaction.

Hydrogen peroxide H 2 O 2 : Hydrogen peroxide is the main oxidizing product of xanthine oxidase. Hydrogen peroxide is also directly produced by a number of oxidase enzymes, including glycolate and monoamine oxidases. Superoxide: In the biological system, superoxide ion is the most significant widespread ROS.

It is formed as a result of various enzymatic auto oxidation reaction and non-enzymatic processes an electron is transferred to molecular oxygen. Copyright: © The Authors. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike 4. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Ibrhim Eiz, Department of Biochemistry, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, Email: ibrzie gmail. Received: Aug, Manuscript No. EJMOAMS- ; Editor assigned: Aug, Pre QC No.

EJMOAMS- PQ ; Reviewed: Aug, QC No. EJMOAMS- ; Revised: Aug, Manuscript No. EJMOAMS- R ; Published: Sep Free radicals are products of normal cellular metabolism. An atom or molecule that has one or more unpaired electrons in its valence shell or outermost orbit is considered a free radical.

Free radicals are unstable, short-lived and highly reactive due to their odd number of electrons. Due to their high reactivity, they can remove electrons from other compounds. Thus, the attacked molecule loses its electron and becomes a free radical itself. Finally, a chain reaction begins that damage the living cell.

The role of free radicals can be found in inflammation, which is a complex process that leads to many human diseases. Inflammation is mainly divided into acute and chronic inflammation depending on different inflammatory processes and cellular mechanisms.

Several studies have shown a positive association between increased intake of dietary antioxidants and reduced risk for chronic inflammatory diseases and oxidative stress.

This chapter concentrates on the underlying mechanisms of how different groups of dietary antioxidants, like vitamin C, vitamin E, flavonoids, carotenoids, and plant polyphenols, prevent the processes of inflammation and oxidative stress responses.

Oxidative stress and inflammation mechanisms are discussed in the light of critical balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines.

Also, roles of dietary antioxidants were discussed as an adjunctive treatment strategy to COVID patients.

Given the convincing evidence for protective as well as curative role of dietary antioxidants in inflammatory processes, more detailed understanding on the effects of nutrients on multiple aspects and development of novel anti-inflammatory agents is required to optimize approaches.

To improve the bioavailability and targeted delivery of external antioxidants, nonreactive carriers or vehicles are needed to be designed with more precision and accuracy.

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Antioxid Redox Signal — Lee WH, Loo CY, Bebawy M, Luk F, Mason RS, Rohanizadeh R Curcumin and its derivatives: their application in neuropharmacology and neuroscience in the 21 st century. At the very least, you should also take a good multivitamin for men , women , and kids that covers the nutrient bases you might not get from food.

Beyond that, certain vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients can provide antioxidants and other benefits. Increase the intake of these immune-supporting foods or look for supplements that provide these nutrients.

They include:. The right supplements can also help you boost antioxidants and reduce inflammation, contributing to a stronger immune system.

One worth mentioning is glutathione. Researchers debate the efficacy of oral glutathione supplements. A more practical strategy is to take supplements that contain the building blocks of glutathione. Focusing on healthy lifestyle factors will also help give your immune system a boost.

These strategies provide an excellent foundation to do all that and more. This exercise guide can provide simple, effective strategies for a quick workout. Chronic stress can also increase inflammation and impact the immune system.

Yoga, meditation, deep breathing, and brisk walking are some of the best ways to reduce the impact of stress on your life.

Aim for at least seven or eight hours of sleep every night. Use a quality sleep-support formula if you have trouble falling or staying asleep. A chiropractor can also customize a protocol that addresses your condition to leave you feeling better.

Find a chiropractor near you today! Focusing on anti-inflammatory, antioxidant-rich foods and nutrients along with the right lifestyle modifications can help you optimize health and cultivate your happiest, most vibrant life.

Maintaining optimal joint health is essential for overall well-being, mobility, and quality of life. One factor that significantly impacts joint health is body weight.

READ MORE. With breast cancer being the second biggest cause of cancer-related deaths in the U. a lot of women are left worrying if and when it will affect them, their friends, or their loved ones. Every year, about , women and 2, men in the U. get the news that they have breast cancer. As the seasons change and outdoor activities pick up, the allure of sports and recreation becomes apparent.

However, along with the excitement of engagement, the possibility of injuries also looms. In the United States, millions experience the aftermath of sports-related injuries every year.