Enhancing cognitive function -
Studies show that these activities seem to help maintain their well-being and may improve their cognitive function. So, visit with family and friends. Consider volunteering for a local organization or join a group focused on a hobby you enjoy.
Join a walking group with other older adults. Check out programs available through your Area Agency on Aging , senior center, or other community organizations.
Increasingly, there are groups that meet online too, providing a way to connect from home with others who share your interests or to get support. We don't know for sure yet if any of these actions can prevent or delay Alzheimer's and age-related cognitive decline. Still, some of these have been associated with reduced risk of cognitive impairment and dementia.
Stress is a natural part of life. Short-term stress can even focus our thoughts and motivate us to take action. To help manage stress and build the ability to bounce back from stressful situations, there are many things you can do:.
Genetic , environmental , and lifestyle factors are all thought to influence cognitive health. Some of these factors may contribute to a decline in thinking skills and the ability to perform everyday tasks such as driving, paying bills, taking medicine, and cooking.
Genetic factors are passed down inherited from a parent to child and cannot be controlled. But many environmental and lifestyle factors can be changed or managed to reduce your risk. These factors include:.
Many health conditions affect the brain and pose risks to cognitive function. These conditions include:. It's important to prevent or seek treatment for these health problems. They affect your brain as well as your body and receiving treatment for other conditions may help prevent or delay cognitive decline or thinking problems.
Older adults are at higher risk of falls, car accidents, and other accidents that can cause brain injury. Alcohol and certain medicines can affect a person's ability to drive safely and also increase the risk for accidents and brain injury. Learn about risks for falls and participate in fall prevention programs.
Wear helmets and seat belts to help prevent head injuries as well. Overcoming this fear can help you stay active, maintain your physical health, and prevent future falls. Some drugs and combinations of medicines can affect a person's thinking and the way the brain works.
For example, certain ones can cause confusion, memory loss, hallucinations, and delusions in older adults. Medicines can also interact with food, dietary supplements, alcohol, and other substances.
Some of these interactions can affect how your brain functions. Drugs that can harm older adults' cognition include:. Lack of exercise and other physical activity may increase your risk of diabetes, heart disease, depression, and stroke — all of which can harm the brain.
In some studies, physical activity has been linked to improved cognitive performance and reduced risk for Alzheimer's disease. In general, staying active is known to lower the risk of high blood pressure, stroke, and symptoms of depression, all of which in turn can improve cognitive health.
A number of studies link eating certain foods with keeping the brain healthy and suggest that other foods can increase health risk. For example, high-fat and high-sodium foods can lead to health problems, such as heart disease and diabetes, that can harm the brain.
Smoking is harmful to your body and your brain. It raises the risk of heart attack, stroke, and lung disease. Quitting smoking at any age can improve your health.
Drinking too much alcohol affects the brain by slowing or impairing communication among brain cells. This can lead to slurred speech, fuzzy memory, drowsiness, and dizziness. Perception Perception is the cognitive process that allows individuals to take in sights, sounds, smells and information via touch and to mentally process this information and respond to it.
Memory Memory is the cognitive process that relates to how well individuals recall information, both in the short term and in the long term. Cognitive skills Cognitive skills use cognitive processes, so individuals can better acquire knowledge and make important decisions. Here are five essential cognitive skills.
Critical thinking Critical thinking helps individuals evaluate information and conduct logical thought processes. Quantitative skills Quantitative skills involve the use of mathematics and statistics to help individuals turn ideas into measurements and to use these measurements to make important decisions.
Logic and reasoning Logic and reasoning are the skills required for individuals to solve difficult problems based on the information available.
Focused attention Focused attention helps individuals prioritise tasks, especially when several competing priorities exist. How the brain learns Whenever the brain is presented with new information, new connections form between neurons.
How the brain remembers Memory is the process in which the brain encodes, stores and retrieves information. Cognitive learning theory Understanding how people learn is an important research area for cognitive psychologists. Stages of cognitive development According to the developmental psychologist Jean Piaget, children move through four stages of cognitive development as they become adults.
Stage 1: Sensorimotor stage birth to two years old In the sensorimotor stage, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through their senses and by handling objects. Stage 2: Preoperational stage two to seven years old In the preoperational stage, language begins to develop.
Stage 3: Concrete operational stage seven to 11 years old In the concrete operational stage, children become better at using logic and at understanding the perspective of others.
Stage 4: Formal operational stage 12 years old and up In the formal operational stage, the final stage of cognitive development, children and young adults increase their use of logic and can understand abstract ideas.
Collaborative learning Cognitive learning theory can also be applied in a workplace setting to help individuals excel and succeed in their careers via workplace learning. Instructors in workplaces use the following cognitive learning theory concepts: Social cognitive theory Social cognitive theory explores how people adjust their behaviour over time to create goals.
Instructors can use different techniques to help individuals positively adjust their behaviour and learn more effectively, including the following: Positive and negative reinforcement Reciprocal determinism Observational learning Self-regulatory capability Emotional coping.
Cognitive behavioural theory Cognitive behavioural theory seeks to explain how thoughts and feelings can influence behaviour, and how, in turn, these thoughts and feelings can affect learning.
Implicit and explicit learning The concepts of implicit and explicit learning help instructors structure their learning to maximise the amount of information learners can retain.
Boosting cognitive thinking can also have many other benefits, including that it: Helps individuals make more objective decisions. Improves productivity at work. Enables a richer social life. Provides an enhanced ability to learn. Encourages a better memory. Delays the onset of cognitive decline.
Stay active Research has shown that physical activity improves cognitive performance and memory , including the ability to learn, manage stress and make better decisions. Tips for staying active to enhance cognitive thinking: Keep track of daily steps, using a pedometer or fitness tracker.
Take daily walks. Do group exercise. Get enough sleep Good quality sleep, and enough of it ideally seven to nine hours each night , helps put people in a better mood and gives them the energy they need for the day. Sleep is also critical for helping store memories, solve problems and concentrate.
Tips for getting enough sleep to enhance cognitive thinking: Avoid using a screen before bedtime including phones and laptops.
Sleep according to a natural sleep cycle. Tips for engaging socially to enhance cognitive thinking: Stay in touch with friends and family regularly via phone or in person. Make regular times to visit people. Where possible, live near other people. Tips for practising mindfulness to enhance cognitive thinking: Take time daily to meditate.
Regularly walk in nature. Write in a gratitude journal. Try new things One great way to improve cognitive thinking is to try new things. Tips for trying new things to enhance cognitive thinking: Make an effort to regularly try a new hobby or activity.
When doing routine tasks, for example, taking a walk, try a new route. Try varying other daily habits, for example, cooking new meals. Learn a new language Learning a new language can greatly assist cognitive thinking as it helps individuals understand how to communicate in a completely different way.
Tips for learning a new language to enhance cognitive thinking: Download a language application and regularly commit to practising. Attend a language school. Travel and live overseas, if possible. Play games Board games, card games and video games can all help activate higher-order cognitive skills , as they involve socialising, strategising, reasoning, solving problems and many other skills.
Games that are particularly good for enhancing cognitive thinking skills include the following: Crossword puzzles Sudoku Chess Bridge.
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Wallis and Futuna Western Sahara Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe. A randomized placebo-controlled trial investigated its effects on cognition. Compared to the placebo group, patients in TC 50 mg groups showed superior performance on attention and episodic memory Dunbar et al. In addition, a phase II trial analyzed its effect on cognitive function in MCI adults Cummings et al.
mAChRs agonist and nAChRs agonist could be promising treatments. However, there is still a long way to go before advancing them into the market Verma et al. Decreased release of dopamine and decreased expression of dopamine receptors are associated with age-related cognitive decline Volkow et al.
There is evidence of the involvement of dopamine in AD. Restoration of dopamine transmission can improve learning and memory of AD Guzmán-Ramos et al.
In a trial of 60 participants, dopaminergic agonist piribedil administration improves global cognitive function in MCI patients Nagaraja and Jayashree, Koch et al. Monoamine oxidase B MAO-B inhibition could increase the availability of dopamine Koch et al. In a phase II trial, Matthews et al.
evaluated the potential benefit of rasagiline a selective MAO-B inhibitor in mild to moderate AD with 50 participants. The results showed rasagiline could improve brain metabolism as measured by fluorodeoxyglucose—positron emission tomography. However, it did not affect globe cognitive function Matthews et al.
Larger sample size trials are needed to evaluate the effect of dopaminergic stimulation on cognitive impairment.
There were also drugs enhancing cognition in health adults in elderly, potential drugs including substances acting on neurotransmitters, hormones, transduction systems, and brain perfusion and metabolism Milić et al. Stimulants such as amphetamine and methylphenidate were reported to improve executive function and memory in healthy adult Smith and Farah, ; Ilieva et al.
Modafinil is an FDA-approved eugeroic that could preserve alertness under conditions of sleep deprivation, through increases cortical catecholamine levels.
Most studies found modafinil could enhances executive function, attention and learning and memory Battleday and Brem, ; Farah, However, their cognitive enhancing effect and safety on elder adults are still needed investigation.
A growing number of studies show that non-pharmacological interventions can enhance cognition in the last decade Gavelin et al.
Non-pharmacological interventions covered a diverse range of intervention categories, including cognition-oriented treatments, non-invasive brain stimulation physical exercise, and lifestyle-related interventions Table 3. Different clinical stages of cognitive impairment, from MCI to dementia, could all benefit from non-pharmacological treatments.
Most non-pharmacological treatments have few adverse effects and can be combined with pharmacological treatments Sikkes et al. Table 3. Evidence of non-pharmacological interventions for cognitive impairment in older adults.
Cognition-oriented interventions, such as cognitive training, cognitive stimulation, and cognitive rehabilitation, are approaches for the prevention and treatment of cognitive decline in the elderly Gavelin et al. They are in high availability, high accessibility, and low implementation costs.
Cognitive training consists of repeated practices on standardized tasks aimed at improving or maintaining certain aspects of cognitive functions Bahar-Fuchs et al. Cognitive stimulation involves non-specific engagement in activities for improving cognitive status Bahar-Fuchs et al.
Cognitive rehabilitation could achieve or preserve optimal levels of functioning in daily life Gavelin et al. Cognitive training has also been reported to have a small to moderate effect on global cognition and a moderate effect on verbal semantic fluency for mild to moderate dementia Bahar-Fuchs et al.
Gates et al. evaluated the effect of computerized cognitive training through a meta-analysis. However, no conclusion could be drawn on whether computerized cognitive training had a beneficial effect on cognitive function as the evidence was of low quality, and most of the results were imprecise Gates et al.
Hu et al. included both MCI and dementia patients with computerized cognitive training in a systematic review in They included 12 studies and found computerized cognitive training could improve general cognition, especially memory.
Subgroup analysis found computerized cognitive training on cognition for dementia was almost double for MCI Hu et al. Cognitive stimulation was also associated with improved cognitive function, self-reported quality of life, and communication and social interactions in dementia people Woods et al.
Although cognition-oriented treatments showed a positive effect on cognitive function, high-quality with larger sample size trials are needed, and further studies should be performed to address the potential benefits of longer-term interventions and their clinical significance.
As for non-invasive brain stimulation, transcranial electrical stimulation TES and transcranial magnetic stimulation TMS are the main techniques. Both techniques are safe and can be well tolerated without sedation or anesthesia Brunoni et al.
They both work by modulating synaptic efficacy and neural circuit and have been used in clinical practice. TES applicant a low-intensity 1—2 mA electric current to the brain via two electrodes anode and cathode , and transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS is the most studied.
The effects of tDCS are determined by the electrical current direction. Anodal tDCS increases neuronal activities by depolarizing the resting potential, while the cathodal tDCS inhibits neuronal activities by hyperpolarizing the resting potential Grimaldi et al.
Cai et al. evaluated the effects of tDCS on cognition within mild to moderate AD patients through a meta-analysis. The results revealed that tDCS could enhance cognitive function; in addition, only a single session of tDCS was effective, repeated sessions of tDCS were not effective, and lower current density 0.
Recently, Chu et al. analyzed the cognitive effects of TES on AD and MCI. After a 1-month follow-up, cathodal tDCS revealed larger therapeutic responses than anodal tDCS on general cognitive function.
Subgroup analysis only found patients with AD, but not MCI, significantly responded to cathodal tDCS Chu et al. Transcranial magnetic stimulation uses a magnetic field to induce action potentials.
The effects of TMS are determined by stimulation frequency. When the frequency is equal to or below 1 Hz, neural excitability is decreased.
When the frequency is between 5 and 20 Hz, neural excitability is increased Cespón et al. TMS can use different stimulation patterns, including single-pulse TMS sTMS , double or paired pulse TMS dTMS , and repetitive TMS rTMS.
sTMS consists of the discharge of single pulses interleaved by at least 4 s periods off-stimulation, dTMS consists of the discharge of a test stimulus preceded by a conditioning stimulus, rTMS refers to more than two pulses delivered within a time interval of 2 s or less Valero-Cabré et al.
rTMS has been widely investigated in depression, and it has been approved by FDA for medication-resistant depression Iriarte and George, In recent years, rTMS has been considered as a promising intervention for cognitive improvement Iriarte and George, Two systematic reviews reported high frequency rTMS might show a moderate effect on cognition in AD and MCI patients Cheng et al.
However, the conclusion was limited by the small sample size of included studies. Larger RCTs and additional research are needed to identify the effect of TMS in the elderly with cognitive impairment.
Nutrition is an important factor that contributes to healthy aging. Adopting a healthier diet may be beneficial to cognition Jennings et al.
Some, but not conclusive, evidence suggests that certain nutrients are protective of brain health in the elderly, including long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin B, vitamin D, selenium and etc. Scarmeas et al. Dietary patterns were also suggested to be protective for brain health in elderly Scarmeas et al.
The Mediterranean diet was the most extensively studied dietary pattern Chen et al. It involves a high intake of vegetables, fruits, legumes, olive oil, whole grains, fish, low to moderate intake of dairy products, alcohol, and restrictions on red meat Power et al. High adherence to the Mediterranean diet is associated with better global cognition and memory has been reported by meta-analysis Coelho-Júnior et al.
However, whether it could reduce the risk of developing MCI or dementia is still conflicted Coelho-Júnior et al. The ketogenic diet was another specific diet, which might provide treatment benefits for AD patients. However, the current studies might be limited by small sample size, short-terms effects, and future studies should be further performed Hersant and Grossberg, The dietary intervention could be considered alongside other individualized interventions to improve cognition in elderly adults.
Interaction between gut microbes and the brain has received considerable attention in the past decade Martin et al. Gut microbiota is found to be associated with emotion, cognition, and social behavior Sarkar et al. Probiotic intervention works by delivering specific strains of bacteria that increase the diversity and number of beneficial microbes, thereby altering the gut microbiota Eastwood et al.
Lv et al. evaluated the probiotics on cognition by meta-analysis, and they found that probiotic supplementations improved cognitive function. Subgroup analyses further found the enhanced effect existed only in people with impaired cognition.
Furthermore, a single strain was more effective than multiple strains Lv et al. Thus, probiotics have been suggested as an effective and accessible cognitive therapy; however, more randomized controlled clinical trials are needed for this conclusion.
Emerging evidence indicates exercise not only promotes physical health but also contributes to the preservation of cognition function. The mechanisms account for the neuroprotective effects of exercise on the brain include evaluated neurotrophic factor levels, increased synaptogenesis, improved vascularization, decreased systemic inflammation, and reduced abnormal protein deposition Kirk-Sanchez and McGough, Several meta-analyses analyzed the effects of exercise on cognition, focused predominantly on aerobic exercise Jia et al.
Angevaren et al. They found that aerobic exercise increased cognitive capacity, including motor function, cognitive speed, and visual attention. Another meta-analysis reported aerobic exercise attenuated the cognitive decline in MCI and dementia people, and found that working memory decline was significantly attenuated, and the effects on other domains of cognitive functions were unclear.
Moderate to high-intensity aerobic exercise had a better effect on cognition Law et al. Another meta-analysis examined the dose-response relationship and found shorter sessions and higher frequencies of exercise could generate a better cognitive effect Sanders et al.
Dancing intervention is another strategy, because it requires physical, cognitive, and social abilities, and thus been analyzed in many studies. In a recent meta-analysis in MCI populations, the results showed that dance had a small to moderate effect on cognitive function, such as attention, immediate and delayed recall, global cognition, and visuospatial ability Chan et al.
Another meta-analysis involving both healthy and MCI old adults also found dance enhanced global cognitive function and executive function Hewston et al. The positive effect of dance intervention on cognitive function in adults with AD was also confirmed in a systematic review Ruiz-Muelle and López-Rodríguez, Thus, dance has been suggested as an adjunct therapy for cognitive decline in the aging population.
As cognitive impairment is a complex, multifactorial disorder, multi-domain interventions have been suggested as a new strategy Kivipelto et al. In the last decades, 3 large clinical trials with multi-domain interventions FINGER, MAPT, and PreDIVA have been reported.
In the FINGER study, diet, exercise, cognitive training, and vascular risk monitoring were used to improve cognitive function in elderly people at risk for cognitive impairment Ngandu et al. In the preDIVA study, a multi-domain intervention targeted vascular risk factors of smoking, unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, overweight, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes over 12 years was used.
However, it did not reduce dementia risk in older people Hoevenaar-Blom et al. In the MAPT trial, multi-domain intervention and Omega-3 PUFA supplementation were involved, and the results did not find significant effects on cognitive function Andrieu et al.
Despite these trials, several meta-analyses also analyzed multi-domain interventions on cognitive impairment. A Cochrane review found a small improvement in cognitive function with multi-domain interventions. However, whether multi-domain interventions could decrease dementia incidences was uncertain Hafdi et al.
Gavelin et al. Nutrition combined with physical exercise interventions could also improve global cognitive function in the elderly population Liu et al. In conclusion, various pharmacological cholinesterase inhibitors, memantine, antidiabetic agents, probiotics, cerebrolysin and non-pharmacological interventions cognition-oriented treatments, non-invasive brain stimulation physical exercise, and lifestyle-related interventions have been proposed for cognitive impairment in older people.
Although a variety of new drug targets has been identified for cognition enhancement in older adults, the new drug is still in development. The existing potential drug targets should be further exploited, and discovering new drug targets could be a solution to the lack of effective drugs. Most non-pharmacological interventions showed a small to moderate beneficial effect on cognitive function in cognitive impairment old people.
Thus, combinations of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions or combinations of different types of non-pharmacological interventions may be more efficient in improving or preserving cognition.
YZ designed and edited the review. LC searched the data and drafted the review. JJ searched the data. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
This study was partly supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China No: , the Post Doctor Research Project of West China Hospital of Sichuan University No: 19HXBH , the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation No: M , and the Postdoctoral Research Project of Sichuan University No: SCU The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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Brain exercises may help boost functio maintain brain Enhancing cognitive function. Memory games, learning new skills, crosswords, and even video games cognitvie help. Enhancing cognitive function Breakfast for improved sleep quality brain gets plenty of exercise every day, certain activities may help boost brain function and connectivity. This in turn may help protect the brain from age-related degeneration. The brain is always active, even during sleep. However, certain activities can engage the brain in new ways, potentially leading to improvements in memory, cognitive function, or creativity.Enhancing cognitive function -
In the MAPT trial, multi-domain intervention and Omega-3 PUFA supplementation were involved, and the results did not find significant effects on cognitive function Andrieu et al.
Despite these trials, several meta-analyses also analyzed multi-domain interventions on cognitive impairment. A Cochrane review found a small improvement in cognitive function with multi-domain interventions. However, whether multi-domain interventions could decrease dementia incidences was uncertain Hafdi et al.
Gavelin et al. Nutrition combined with physical exercise interventions could also improve global cognitive function in the elderly population Liu et al. In conclusion, various pharmacological cholinesterase inhibitors, memantine, antidiabetic agents, probiotics, cerebrolysin and non-pharmacological interventions cognition-oriented treatments, non-invasive brain stimulation physical exercise, and lifestyle-related interventions have been proposed for cognitive impairment in older people.
Although a variety of new drug targets has been identified for cognition enhancement in older adults, the new drug is still in development. The existing potential drug targets should be further exploited, and discovering new drug targets could be a solution to the lack of effective drugs.
Most non-pharmacological interventions showed a small to moderate beneficial effect on cognitive function in cognitive impairment old people. Thus, combinations of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions or combinations of different types of non-pharmacological interventions may be more efficient in improving or preserving cognition.
YZ designed and edited the review. LC searched the data and drafted the review. JJ searched the data. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
This study was partly supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China No: , the Post Doctor Research Project of West China Hospital of Sichuan University No: 19HXBH , the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation No: M , and the Postdoctoral Research Project of Sichuan University No: SCU The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers.
Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Alvarez, X. Alzheimer Res. doi: PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Andrieu, S. Effect of long-term omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation with or without multidomain intervention on cognitive function in elderly adults with memory complaints MAPT : A randomised, placebo-controlled trial.
Lancet Neurol. CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Angevaren, M. Physical activity and enhanced fitness to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst. Arai, H. A combination therapy of donepezil and cilostazol for patients with moderate Alzheimer disease: Pilot follow-up study.
Psychiatry 17, — Areosa Sastre, A. Effect of the treatment of Type 2 diabetes mellitus on the development of cognitive impairment and dementia.
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Alzheimers Res. This led to arousal-mood hypothesis which states that the enhanced cognitive performances are effects of stimulus on the mood of the subject; there is no music induced direct activation of neurons to enhance cognitive performances A comprehensive review by Schellenberg et al.
Results from a recent review, however, emphasized that music listening has many inherent benefits for cognitive, motor, emotional, and social functioning On the other hand, few earlier studies supported the claim that music directly influences brain networks for enhancing spatial abilities 4 , 14 , Other studies showed that music activates brain regions responsible for attention and cognitive tasks 16 , 17 , A recent finding suggests that music activates regions which are linked to memory, cognition, and IQ However, the previous studies were not able to convincingly establish the detailed and systematically parameterize direct mechanisms between music and cognitive enhancement.
Few recent works reveal a new aspect of interconnections between music and brain signals Music and signals such as EEG and fMRI share a striking similarity between them, of being scale free in nature 20 , Indeed, sonification of brain signals into music has given a deeper insight into neuro-activities of the brain from musical perspective The apparent difference between the findings of the previous studies can be partly attributed to the lack of in-depth knowledge of mechanisms involved in these stimulus-end effect based works 8 , To the best of our knowledge, detailed study of brain dynamics on exposure to music with respect to spectral power and functional connectivity of cortical regions of brain has not yet been done.
Hence, a well-defined quantitative framework is required to clearly investigate the connections between music and cognitive effects among individuals. In this work, we hypothesized that music, as an external stimulus, directly induce alterations in brain network dynamics to create short-term cognitive enhancement.
To understand these mechanisms, we selected two important neuropsychological constructs — intelligence and sustained attention. Numerous groups have researched on Intelligence Quotient IQ to account for the observed variation in cognitive performances between individuals.
Two complementary theories have been well received in this regard— the Neural efficiency hypothesis of Intelligence NEH , and the Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory of intelligence P-FIT. NEH postulates that individuals with higher IQ perform a cognitive task with fewer brain resources compared to their counterparts P-FIT theory proposes that the frontal and parietal parts of the brain are centres primarily responsible for intelligence, along with the cingulate cortex, temporal lobe, occipital lobe and association cortices between frontal and parietal lobes Accordingly, a number of EEG variables have been shown to strongly correlate with the IQ of the individual.
EEG power and coherence are positively and negatively correlated with IQ respectively Enhanced power is observed in high IQ participants in the frontal cortex, in particular in the prefrontal cortex area linked to cognitive functioning and in the occipital cortex 22 , 24 , 25 , 26 , Connectivity measures such as phase delay for short inter-electrode distance especially in the frontal lobe, have been found to reduce in high IQ individuals suggesting speedy processing at the frontal cortex Phase slope index for long inter-electrode distance has been found to reduce in participants with high IQ 28 especially between frontal and parietal lobe implying reduced information flow between them; optimization of the widespread activity of the brain resources for efficient functioning.
This led to small world characteristics in high IQ subjects with increased hub order at the frontal and parietal lobes 28 , Recent fMRI studies have also led to a resurgence in the importance of brain areas related to temporal, occipital, and insular cortex in cognitive processing 30 , Sustained attention is vital for any task performance.
It serves prominently three purposes — a excitation of task-relevant processes, b monitoring and evaluating of ongoing cognitive processes, and c inhibition of task-irrelevant processes The important regions responsible for sustained attention is fronto-parietal system Thus, this suggests a possible link among music, attention, and intelligence.
Multiple types of oscillatory signals — theta, delta, alpha, beta, and gamma signals, modulate brain functions at all sensory and cognitive levels. Hence, selection of the most suitable oscillation band fundamental to cognitive processes is vital.
Alpha band oscillations are known to play an active role in cognitive process 38 , 39 , Furthermore, the most significant correlations between music and the psychometric measures of IQ have been consistently found in the alpha band 18 , 22 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , Hence, in the present work, we focused our analyses on the alpha band spectrum.
Another important aspect in establishing a quantitative framework of mechanisms in music induced cognitive changes is the type of music that is used in the experimental study.
Earlier studies used mostly Western music, especially Mozart, leaving scope to question whether other music forms from different cultural backgrounds would also show similar neural mechanisms. We used a famous eastern instrumental composition of Raga Darbari, played on flute by a professional Indian musician, as the stimulus in the present study.
The stimulus maintains the cultural salience of the music for the participants. In summary, with Raga Darbari as the external musical stimulus, we investigate the changes in EEG patterns of brain networks during the resting state with the intent to explore the neural mechanisms responsible for enhanced cognitive abilities.
Primarily, we tested a changes in alpha power at the prefrontal and occipital cortex, and b variations in the information flow between long-distance connections in alpha band, especially between frontal and parietal cortex.
Based on findings from these experiments, we propose a novel comprehensive model to explain the role of music in stimulating the dedicated regions of brain that lead to observed cognitive effects.
There was no significant increment of the phase coherence between any electrodes between pre-music silence and post-music silence condition except a few interconnections. Nevertheless, several connections experienced a significant reduction in coherence value after exposure to music.
Cumulative reduced phase coherence sum of reduced coherence values of connections for which a significant reduction occured on exposure to music after music stimulus as a function of the time period is shown in Fig.
Brain efficiency is known to be inversely proportional to phase coherence We found connections 27 in total interlinking parietal and occipital brain regions with frontal, central, and temporal brain regions as well as interlinking parietal with occipital brain region Supplementary Fig.
Figure 1 c shows comparison between the mean values of the 27 connections. Figure 1 d shows the number of connections with reduced coherence as a function of inter-electrode distance. A repeated measure ANOVA with a Greenhouse-Geisser correction indicates a significant effect of inter-electrode distance on the number of connections F 1.
Thus, long-distance connections were affected more than the short-distance ones. The results show reduced communication post music. Phase coherence analysis. a Cumulative reduced phase coherence of the interconnections with significant reduction in coherence after music exposure as a function of time period.
c Relative mean coherence of the 27 connections showing significant difference between before and after music stimulus. d Number of connections with significantly reduced coherence as function of inter-electrode distances.
Figure 2 a shows the variation in the cumulative increment of phase delay as a function of the time period. Phase delay is inversely related to information flow and thus directly proportional to brain efficiency After that, the efficiency of the brain stayed moderately enhanced. We found connections interlinking parietal and occipital brain regions with frontal, central, and temporal brain regions as well as interlinking parietal with occipital brain region Supplementary Fig.
Figure 2 c demonstrates mean phase delay for the connections. Variation in the number of connections with increased phase delay as a function of inter-electrode distance is shown in Fig.
Thus, the long-distance connections were affected more than the short-distance ones. With respect to the hemispheric differences, left hemisphere of the brain had more number of connections with enhanced phase delay Fig.
The result shows a reduction in the network communication post music. Phase delay analysis. a Cumulative increased phase delay of the interconnections with significant increment in phase delay after music exposure as a function of time period.
c Relative mean value of phase delay of the connections showing significant difference between before and after music stimulus. d Number of connections with significantly enhanced phase delay as a function of inter-electrode distances. Figure 3 a depicts the cumulative reduction in the PSI as a function of the time period on music listening.
A total of 66 connections, interlinking frontal region with central, parietal, and temporal regions as well as interlinking intra-frontal region Supplementary Fig. Z value ranged between 1. The PSI value of only one connection significantly increased after exposure to music.
Figure 3 d shows the number of connections with reduced PSI as a function of inter-electrode distance. Findings also indicate that the left hemisphere of the brain had more number of connections Fig. The result shows a reduction in information flow post music.
Phase slope index analysis. a Cumulative reduced phase slope index PSI of the interconnections with significant reduction in PSI after music exposure as a function of time period. c Relative mean PSI of the 66 connections showing significant difference between before and after music stimulus.
d Number of connections with significantly reduced PSI as a function of inter-electrode distances. We examined alpha power variation in the prefrontal and occipital lobes which are correlated with general Intelligence 24 , Figure 4 a illustrates the p-value for prefrontal, occipital, and parietal electrodes corresponding to the hypothesis that there is no difference between pre-music and post-music condition in power value.
Wilkinson sign rank test was used for the power analysis comparison. Occipital cortex particularly showed enhanced power. Thus, the finding supports increment in cognitive performance. Power analysis. a Depicts p-value for the increment in the power of post music silence condition as a function of time period.
The participants expressed whether the music was pleasant or unpleasant. The result indicates a moderate level of pleasant experience after listening to the music.
Music is linked to short-term enhancement of cognitive processing 4 , 5. The process is mediated through arousal and mood of the subject as induced by the music 10 , However, due to the lack of clear and direct mechanisms demonstrating the cognitive effect of music on the brain, the end effect of music has been questioned in several studies 6 , The present study explores the neural mechanisms accountable for enhanced intelligence on exposure to music.
We studied the changes in the characteristics of the brain networks during the resting state of the brain upon listening to music.
Primarily we looked into the alteration in the functional connectivity and EEG power of the brain network in the alpha band. Based on earlier works 24 , 28 , 42 , 43 we applied three phase analyses measures to comparatively study functional connectivity of brain networks from different perspective; namely phase coherence, phase delay, and PSI.
Phase coherence strictly identifies phase synchronized interconnections of brain networks independent of amplitude 42 , Phase delay analysis measures mean phase angle between two-time series Phase slope index, on the other hand, measures effective connectivity of the brain networks.
It measures frequency average of the slope of phase of coherence The analysis of PSI involves only imaginary part, thereby making it robust to volume conduction. All the three metrics measure different features of the brain networks while quantifying associated information flow.
Analysing the EEG data from different perspective would help in a robust characterization of the functional connectivity of the brain.
Study conducted by Thatcher et al. Thus, our first probing method, phase coherence analysis is quite suitable. Findings show a significant diminution in mean phase coherence of the brain Fig.
This signifies net enhancement in brain efficiency The effect size obtained for phase coherence analysis was 1. We found that connections 27 in total with reduced coherence were interlinking parietal and occipital brain regions with frontal, central, and temporal brain regions as well as interlinking parietal with occipital brain region.
Phase delay biomarker, our next probing technique, had been shown to have the strongest correlation, the largest number of inter-connections significantly correlating with respect to IQ among other biomarkers such as spectral coherence, absolute power, etc Phase delay is inversely related to information flow between two cortical regions.
Results showed a significant enhancement of mean phase delay value of the brain Fig. We found that connections in total with enhanced phase delay were interlinking parietal and occipital brain regions with frontal, central, and temporal brain regions as well as interlinking parietal with occipital brain region.
The absolute value of effect size obtained for phase delay was 1. Phase slope index, which is directly proportional to information flow between brain cortical regions, measures the functional connectivity between those regions but also accounts for the variation in power along with phase of the respective regions.
Results showed a significant reduction of mean PSI value of the brain Fig. The effect size obtained for PSI analysis was found to be 1. We found that connections 66 in total with reduced PSI were interlinking frontal region with central, parietal, and temporal regions as well as interlinking intra-frontal region.
These results indicate a reduction in the information flow between various cortical regions of the brain on exposure to music. Decreased information flow has been linked to high IQ and implies a more efficient brain 24 , These results are in line with the NEH theory.
Earlier studies have shown that long-distance inter-electrode connections of the brain are more significantly correlated than the short ones 28 , 44 , and so also information flow in the left hemisphere of the brain had been reduced more than the right hemisphere in the individuals with high IQ 28 , We obtained more significant correlations for long-distance inter-electrode connections, and prominently in the left hemisphere in all the three analyses.
This supports the small world model of intelligence by attenuating long-distance inter-electrode connections between the two hubs - frontal and parietal. In addition to the frontal-parietal hub interconnections, PSI analysis showed reduced long-distance communication at frontal-central, frontal-temporal, and intra-frontal regions.
Also, phase coherence and phase delay analyses showed reduced communication at frontal-occipital, parietal-central, parietal-temporal, and parietal-occipital regions after the music stimulus for long-distances inter-electrode connections. Both results are in line with earlier studies 24 , 28 that had demonstrated that long-distance communication in frontal-occipital, frontal-temporal, frontal-central, intra-frontal, parietal-occipital, and intra-parietal decreased significantly in intelligent individuals.
This could be interpreted as listening to music also reduces the demands along other networks associated with intelligence such as occipital, temporal, cingulate cortex, and association cortex between frontal and parietal lobe in addition to the prominent role of frontal-parietal hub Fig.
This is in line with the recent development in the intelligence model 30 , Curtailing down the irrelevant connections of brain networks is vital to conserve energy for focused, undistracted, efficient functioning. Hence, music, by subsiding unrelated long-distance connections, enhances global efficiency, thereby boosting cognitive abilities.
These results are well in accordance with the NEH theory, and previous studies 24 , Schematic model a shows decreased information flow along distance connections in the P-FIT network coupled with increased efficiency at frontal and occipital lobes on music listening.
Dark and grey lines indicate high and low information flow in the interconnections respectively while dark and grey circles represent high and low efficient hubs respectively, b Music with moderate level of arousal and pleasantness boost up the intelligence by 1 enhancing tonic alertness occipital lobe , 2 increasing local processing in the region responsible for cognitive performance prefrontal lobe , and 3 increasing global efficiency through purging of neural noises.
The regions specified by the phase analyses were slightly different. This may be because both are power independent phase analyses.
The results obtained through PSI analysis prominently at the frontal-central, intra-frontal and frontal-parietal regions were different from that of phase coherence and phase delay analyses.
PSI analysis incorporates power information of the regions while calculating information flow among the respective regions. So, results from PSI analysis are likely to be affected by power fluctuation. For example, post music, there is a significant increment in power at the occipital lobes O1, O2, Oz , prefrontal lobe Fp2 and a feeble increment although not significant at parietal lobe Fig.
This leads to the absence of these regions in PSI analysis. Alpha power is inversely related to brain activation. High power endorses diminished brain activation implying a more efficient brain.
Hence, we next probed changes in the alpha power of the brain, particularly at the prefrontal and the occipital cortex. Power analysis shows an increase in the alpha power at all the three sites of occipital cortex and at the frontal cortex, particularly at the prefrontal site Fp2 on exposure to music Fig.
The enhancement of the alpha power at the occipital lobe was more pronounced and stable than at the prefrontal lobe, which became significant only for a brief period. Enhanced alpha power at the occipital and frontal sites have been shown to be biomarkers of individuals with high IQ in the earlier studies 24 , Heightened alpha power at prefrontal lobe points towards increased neural efficiency in the prefrontal lobe, which is a site consistently linked to all three different types of functioning intelligence spatial, verbal and circles The findings are well in accordance with the NEH theory.
Moreover, increased alpha oscillation power at the occipital site is also connected to increased tonic alertness or vigilance 47 , 48 and internally directed attention This enhanced alertness may also trigger a temporary enhancement of cognitive functions 35 , 36 , Thus, music listening boosts-up cognitive abilities directly by increasing the local neural efficiency, and indirectly by enhancing sustained attention.
The results show enhancement in cognitive performance as a direct consequence of listening to music. Furthermore, the piece of music stimulus chosen for the study was able to induce, in the participants a significantly moderate level of pleasantness, which is an important prerequisite reported in many earlier studies The enhancement of cognitive functioning on exposure to music is not an artifact of arousal and mood as is sometimes understood.
Our results show that a pleasant music with a moderate arousal level can actually trigger neural mechanism for boosting intelligence. In summary, we propose that music listening affects the brain dynamics by three possible mechanisms Fig.
by increasing global efficiency through purging off irrelevant neural networks, especially between long-distance inter-electrode connections,. Sustained attention on the other hand also resists distraction thereby reduces unnecessary cross talks and boost up focussed functioning thereby reinforcing prefrontal lobe processing Similarly, efficient focussed functioning at prefrontal lobe favors sustained attention and less distraction.
In the hierarchical framework of stimulus-mechanism-end effects, these three mechanisms provide an intermediate bridge to transform the arousal-mood status into the enhanced cognitive performance output level from the brain.
Our novel model gives clear possible neural mechanisms responsible for enhanced cognitive effect on exposure to music. It not only integrates the earlier two hypotheses of a arousal and mood, and b direct influence, but also reveal the detailed direct neural mechanisms induced by music on brain cognitive functions.
We have also interpreted the reduction in communication between the regions connected with intelligence such as occipital, temporal, cingulate cortex, and association cortex between frontal and parietal lobe as caused by music stimulus for enhancing cognitive performances. Further studies need to be done to verify whether there is a causal connection between them or the reduction in the information flow is caused through some other unrelated mechanisms.
An interesting extension of the present study could be to compare the characteristics of the music stimulus used in our experiment with that of scale free brain music obtained from sonification of the post music EEG data 20 , No formal or informal training in music and right handedness were the inclusion criteria whereas hearing disorder, neurological disease, and usage of psychoactive drugs in the recent time were the exclusion criteria.
We included only the male participants since the biomarkers for intelligence network are shown to have some differences between a male and a female All the experiments were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.
The participants were recruited through in-house advertisement. Those who volunteered for the study were briefed about the experimental protocol. The experiment was conducted after filling the informed consent form. Raga Darbari, one of the most popular ragas in Indian classical music system, is known to be effective in managing type 2 Diabetes 50 , insomnia 51 and stress-related disorder 52 , 53 , Given the literary evidence from earlier studies 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 involving Raga Darbari, we decided to choose Raga Darbari as the experimental stimulus.
The socio-cultural milieu in India gives an inadvertent exposure to Ragas and Gharanas schools to all who are born and brought-up in the Indian society.
Individuals coming from this background might not have received detailed and explicit knowledge of Ragas but have a subconscious familiarity with them.
The stimulus used in the current experiment has cultural salience. A Raga composition features two parts namely alaap followed by gat. Alaap is note by note presentation of the raga, characterized by slow tempo without any rhythmic cycle.
Gat section is characterized by fast tempo with rhythmic cycle provided by a percussion instrument. The experiment was conducted in a soundproof laboratory with the stereo speakers kept around 2 meters symmetrically from the participants.
The lightening condition inside the room was dim. The participants were made to sit comfortably. They were instructed to listen to the audio stimulus attentively with their eyes closed during the whole experiment.
A subjective assessment of their mood was also taken before and after completion of the experiment. EEG was recorded using a g. HIamp bio-signal amplifier Guger Technologies, OG, Graz, Austria at 32 scalp positions according to the international 10—20 system. A band pass filter of 0. Right earlobe was used as a reference electrode.
The Data was high-pass filtered at 0. Bad electrodes were marked if any. Independent component analysis Infomax ICA algorithm, runica was applied on the good channels to remove further artifacts. Bad channels were then interpolated Spherical interpolation.
The data of three participants were removed from the analyses due to heavy artifacts whereas two participants who had previous exposure to music were also excluded from the study. The effect of music is for a short duration. Pre-music and post-music silence conditions were juxtaposed in various time periods to find the period of maximum efficiency.
Phase and power analyses were performed as a function of time period rather than time in order to increase the signal to noise ratio. We applied Hilbert transform to the filtered data to obtain instantaneous phase and power of the EEG signal.
We calculated phase coherence, phase delay and phase slope index for all the time periods for both pre-music and post music silence conditions. We selected the time period for which the phase analyses results showed maximum reduction in the information flow by listening to music. We investigated the alteration in the topography of functional connectivity through phase coherence, phase delay and PSI analyses for the corresponding time period between Pre-music and post-music silence conditions.
We also studied variation in the alpha power at the prefrontal and occipital lobes of the brain for the corresponding time period.
EEG data recorded at the scalp positions may not necessarily be Gaussian, and in addition, our sample size was not sufficient for the validity of the parametric test, so we applied a non-parametric test in our EEG analysis. Wilkinson sign rank test was applied for statistical testing for power and phase analyses.
We used t-test for comparing mean values, subjective assessment of music listening and brain lateralization analysis.
To investigate information flow variation with respect to inter-electrode distances in the brain network, a repeated ANOVA was applied. All the statistical comparisons were two-tailed with the α- value set to 0. EEG time series is time-varying and has only real component.
For the purpose of obtaining instantaneous power as well as phase, we need a complex value signal. Hilbert transform function can extract the imaginary part from a real value signal and forms a complex signal called Analytical signal.
Let R r t represent a real signal. where R at t represents the analytical signal, and R ht t represents the Hilbert transform of the real signal. Since the function h t is non-integrable, the Hilbert transform is defined using Cauchy principal value P.
This gives the analytical signal R at t , which can also be represented in polar form as. where M t denotes the instantaneous amplitude while ϕ t denotes instantaneous phase. It is precisely defined as clustering of phase angle difference between two electrodes in polar space.
Let Z i and Z j be two time-series for two channels i and j respectively. So, the instantaneous phase difference between them is:. where ϕ i t , and ϕ j t are instantaneous phase angle of the two-time series and ϕ ij t is instantaneous phase difference between them.
Phase coherence is calculated as:. where PC f represents phase coherence at the frequency f , t denotes calculation over time and ϕ ij t represents the instantaneous phase difference between the electrodes i and j Phase coherence is positively correlated with information flow.
Phase delay is positively related to IQ and is found to be a robust biomarker for high IQ individuals Phase delay is defined as the absolute instantaneous phase difference between the electrodes as calculated in the phase coherence analysis.
Its absolute value is computed by squaring the instantaneous phase difference and then taking its square root. Phase Slope Index PSI is positively correlated with information flow and thus inversely related to IQ The basic principle for PSI is that a temporal order between two-time series gives rise to a phase difference as a linear function of frequency For each frequency bin, PSI measures the change in the phase difference with its neighbourhood weighted by coherence.
If for a particular band, there is significant spectral coherency and the phase difference changes consistently across the frequency bins, then the PSI value would drift from zero.
PSI is calculated in the following way for the two time-series Z i and Z j. The whole time-series is divided into k segments of T duration each. Cross and auto spectral density among them is defined as follows:. where S i , j f represents cross spectral density at the frequency f , S i , i f represents the auto spectral density at the frequency f , and Z i f , k represents the Fourier transform in channel i and segment k.
where C i , j f represents complex coherency. Calculation of PSI value is done as:. For further depth of the PSI, please refer Witham et al. The inter-electrode distance between each pair of electrodes was calculated as Euclidian distance between them based upon the positioning of the electrodes according to the international 10—20 system.
They were asked to rate their experience between pleasant and unpleasant on an point Likert scale. The data used in the current investigation are accessible upon reasonable request from the corresponding author. All the codes were written on MATLAB platform and open source toolboxes such as EEGLAB and Fieldtrip were also used.
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