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Have you heard about higher-satiety eating?Satiety and reduced food intake -
Thus, there are studies that essayed elevated doses to assure the beneficial effect of the compound and others studies are interested in essaying a minor dose which can be found in normal food portions.
It is necessary to control also the amount and the type of macronutrients, dietary fiber, phytochemical and other food compounds that could affect satiety and accompany functional ingredient studied. On the other hand, technological and culinary treatments influence satiating efficiency of foods.
For example, the gelatinization of starches in cooking water drastically reduces their satiating effect [ 7 , 42 ]. Additionally, physiochemical changes in food matrix such as texture, viscosity and consistency are detected when foods are industrially or culinary treated [ 43 , 44 ].
Moreover, the sensorial characteristics of foods can also affect their ability to produce satiety. Some authors showed a correlation between brain activity in the regions that control food intake and the rate of pleasantness [ 45 - 47 ].
Consequently, the nutritional, sensorial and physiochemical characteristics of food must be paired or controlled and the results published frequently did not show an adequate control of the experimental variables. The various ways to offer food are appropriate for different: the fixed supply is suitable for subjects with small gastric capacity, like preschool children.
Instead, offering varied or freely designs are more appropriate for adolescent and adults. In these latter two, the concept of sensory-specific satiety is used; it means that the subjects can obtain satiety for one type of feed, still maintaining an appetite for foods with different characteristics [ 48 - 50 ].
The variety of textures, tastes, smells and colors is also involved in this phenomenon [ 16 , 33 , 51 ]. During a meal, the absence of varied choice tends to limit food intake, whereas variety tends to promote eating.
Therefore, in this design it is very important to get a good balance between the physiochemical, sensory and nutritional characteristics of food offered.
In this way, subjects can express their real potential capacity to consume. Regardless, the three ways to offer food fixed, varied or freely should all include foods with high acceptability by the subjects involved in the study. Another important aspect to evaluate the satiating potential of a functional food or ingredient is to standardize the hunger level of each subject, regulating the fasting condition of the previous days.
The time between the ingestion of functional food and the measurement of satiety change, basing on the purpose of the study. If the aim is to evaluate the effect of the oro-sensorial and gastrointestinal factors on satiety, the delay should be no more than 30 minutes, while if the purpose is to investigate the inhibitory effects post-absorptive, the delay must be longer.
The review of published studies shows that there are two methods used for satiety measurement. The first evaluates the perception of satiety reported by the participants and the second measures the actual food intake.
Therefore, the VAS provides a subjective evaluation of satiety while the measurement of actual food intake provides an objective assessment. Both methods are widely accepted in satiety assessment and can be considered as markers to evaluate the direct effects of food intake [ 38 ].
Some variables that must be considered during a study are the environmental conditions in which results are obtained. The laboratory conditions are more appropriate to have an adequate control of the different variables while the free-living conditions are similar to the normal way of eating of the subjects.
When the objective of the study is to obtain physiological responses or to study the conceptual framework of some biomarkers, the research must be carried out in a laboratory context.
On the contrary, if the aim of the investigation is to determine the effect of food on body weight changes which requires a long period of time, it is more appropriate to perform the measurements in a free-living environment.
In both approaches the environmental conditions need to be considered in the interpretation of the results and in their projection to the feeding of the individuals. The experimental researches in the field of energy regulation need to study different compounds derived from the metabolism of macronutrient or peptides in the cells, acting as messengers from the gastrointestinal tract to the central nervous system, principally in certain regions of the hypothalamus.
These biomarkers help to understand how the processes of satiety and appetite are modified by the dietary components, contributing to reach an optimum in the usefulness of the functional ingredients designed to increase satiety.
The metabolic biomarkers are simultaneously determined with the measurement of satiety. These biomarkers may provide valuable information to explain the conceptual basis to understand the effect of dietary bioactive compounds on human cells. Some researchers recommend the determination of Cholecystokinin CCK and Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 GLP1 as markers of satiation and the measure of glycaemia, insulinemia, Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide GIP and Peptide YY PYY as biomarkers of satiety [ 52 ].
Ghrelin is an excellent marker of satiety, which acts on hypothalamus receptors as a peripheral hormone, stimulating the expression of neuropeptide Y and agouti-related protein [ 53 ]. In a study conducted by Batterham and co-workers the role of PYY on satiety was assessed.
The research demonstrated that PYY is a biomarker of satiety acting as a peripheral signal on central nervous system receptors [ 57 ]. Carbohydrates are the nutrients mainly consumed in the diet and consequently they are important in the regulation of energy intake, to have biomarkers able to predict the effect of carbohydrate intakes on satiety.
Postprandial glucose and insulin levels depend on the available amounts of carbohydrates and on their digestion rate. If during the digestion, the carbohydrates are rapidly absorbed, the glycemic response is rapid and when an accentuate fall is produced, a higher energy intake was proven [ 58 , 59 ].
Consequently sharp curves are associated with hunger and flat curves are associated with satiety [ 60 , 61 ]. Furthermore, high glycemic response increases the risk of obesity, diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular disease [ 62 ]. Some investigators suggested that insulinemia is a more sensible biomarker than glycemic [ 63 , 64 ].
On the other hand, white bread determines the increase of blood glucose which can be explained with the high concentration of starches with rapid digestion rate [ 67 , 68 ].
Biomarkers for proteins are the levels of amino acid in plasma which are related to the release of hormones and peptides connected with the central nervous system [ 69 ]. The oxidation process of amino acids, that starts in the liver and facilitates ATP synthesis, is directly related with the protein concentration in foods consumed: this suggests that in order to obtain a potential rise of satiety, it's necessary to consume a high amount of dietary proteins in one meal per day [ 70 , 71 ].
There are a considerable number of researches on metabolic biomarkers and their relationship with appetite and satiety in humans. However, their use in the assessment of food satiety efficiencies or in the contribution on the design and the evaluation of functional foods, are not completely accepted because the evidences are limited and controversial.
The plasma levels of glucose and insulin are the more considered biomarkers used as valuable information to connect the theory with the practical actions in the area of functional foods. The analysis of the literature revised suggests that the majority of the experimental designs are carried out in a short period of time either in the same meal time satiation or in the subsequent meal time satiety.
These studies are planned to evaluate the physiological processes of appetite, satiety and satiation but they were not designed to evaluate the energy intake in the long term where it is possible to evaluate the changes in bodyweight. A great proportion of functional foods for energy regulation is based on the addition of isolated soluble fiber i.
β-glucans to the food matrices or the inclusion of foods rich in soluble fiber such as oats and barley Hordeum vulgare L. Most of the health benefits associated with high viscosity foods are due to β-glucans, which demonstrated some physiological effects such as the satiety and the moderation of the glycemic and insulinemic postprandial response [ 37 , 72 , 73 ].
To understand if the β-glucans benefits are dose-dependent, several studies were conducted to define the lowest dose which demonstrated the effect above mentioned. The incorporation of oat β-glucans from 2. Moreover, the oat had a high viscosity which produced the increased perception of satiety [ 74 ].
In the same way Beck et al, showed that a lower dose of oat β-glucan 2. The effect of foods combined with β-glucans in the population must be taken into account for the submission of healthy messages.
Few studies linked the recurrent intake of oat β-glucans with the reduction of body weight. During a research of Beck et al. The use of the soluble fibre in food could be related to the weight loss and appetite control [ 76 ]. The literature revised in this paper showed that in short time and in laboratory conditions the addition of oat β-gucans are beneficial to increase satiety and to decrease the glycemic and the insulinemic responses.
Barley is another cereal investigated as source of soluble dietary fibre with healthy benefices [ 77 - 80 ]. Crackers and cookies enriched with 3. As demonstrated by Vitaglione et al. In some researches some functional ingredients were incorporated into the white wheat bread with the aim to test the glycaemic and insulinemic responses and to evaluate the satiety capacity of the bread [ 83 , 84 ].
Others wheat products such as pastes were also used as vehicles to add healthy ingredients such as soluble and insoluble fibres: β- glucans, resistant starches, FOS [ 85 - 88 ]. It is well established that proteins are the macronutrient that causes the greater satiety in the short-term [ 69 , 89 ].
These results were applied to functional foods based on protein isolated such as casein, whey and soy protein [ 92 , 93 ]. Actually, the research in this area is based on the effect of different food proteins types beyond their protein concentration [ 94 ].
This is the case of milk proteins such as casein and whey. The results demonstrated that both compounds increase satiety but with diverse efficiency. Casein presents a more rapid digestion in upper gastrointestinal zones and its metabolic action appears in a short postprandial time [ 95 ].
On the contrary, whey protein shows a more slow digestion and its metabolic role can be expressed in a longer time [ 96 , 97 ] demonstrated that the whey proteins are more potent than casein in the increase of CCK and GLP 1 and in the decrease of appetite.
Today, an important research area is to formulate and evaluate functional foods based on the combination of protein with soluble fiber with the purpose to obtain a synergism to have a product with a high satiating potential. The primary aim is low energy intake and maintaining body weight of individuals at the risk of obesity.
Foods need to be carefully evaluated considering food chemical composition, the structure and the physical properties of the food matrix, processing conditions, the amount of the satiating ingredients and their interactions with the others food components.
When these foods meet the requirements of the food regulation of each country, they can be incorporated in the market system in varied forms [ 98 ], facilitating the consumers purchase and representing a dietary tool to alleviate the epidemic of obesity in the whole world.
The present paper suggests some actions useful to obtain a better application of the different methodologies for the evaluation of the efficacy of functional foods in the increase of satiety.
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Av Gran Bretaña , Valparaíso, Chile; Tel: 56 ; E-mail: marcela. alvina uv. Abstract Nowadays obesity is affecting people from all socioeconomic levels in most of the countries worldwide. Keywords: Functional food, Healthy ingredients, Intake regulation, Satiety determination, Satiety biomarkers.
Previous Article View Abstract Download PDF Download ePub Next Article. Energy Intake Regulation The models proposed to study the regulation of energy intake indicate that food intake starts with external signals related to their metabolism Fig. Model intake regulation.
Methodology to Obtain Healthy Functional Foods to Regulate Energy Intake The methodology approach applied in most of the researches on appetite and satiety is varied and complex because of the numerous variables involved [ 31 , 35 , 36 ].
Methodological Design Considerations In each stage of the experimental design it is necessary to take into account a large number of variables. Metabolic Biomarkers Related to Satiety The experimental researches in the field of energy regulation need to study different compounds derived from the metabolism of macronutrient or peptides in the cells, acting as messengers from the gastrointestinal tract to the central nervous system, principally in certain regions of the hypothalamus.
Most Promising Functional Foods to Increase Satiety According to Scientific Knowledge A great proportion of functional foods for energy regulation is based on the addition of isolated soluble fiber i.
These actions are summarized in the following items: Development of studies to standardize the methodology for assessing appetite and satiety.
Use of standard food used as controls to assure the validity of the methodologies. Work on the homologation of the health messages and nutrition labelling. Increase private and public budget to study the healthy characteristics of new ingredients added to functional foods.
Increase the knowledge on the usefulness of biomarkers used in the design of functional foods. Provide scientific information about the use of functional foods to increase satiety and how they can be integrated in the diet of the consumers.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST The authors confirm that this article content has no conflict of interest. The epidemiology of obesity: the size of the problem. J Intern Med ; 4 : CrossRef PubMed. Track Your Manuscript Enter Correct Manuscript Reference Number: Submit Reference Number.
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Review on epidemic of obesity. Ann Acad Med Singapore ; 38 1 : Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases. Misra A, Khurana L.
Obesity and the metabolic syndrome in developing countries. J Clin Endocrinol Metab ; 93 11 Suppl. Peña M, Bacallao J. Obesity and Poverty: A new Public Helth Challenge. Washington, DC: PAHO Levine JA. Poverty and obesity in the U. Diabetes ; 60 11 : Alviña M, Araya H. Rapid carbohydrate digestion rate produced lesser short-term satiety in obese preschool children.
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Neurosci Biobehav Rev ; 8 1 : Kissileff HR, Gruss LP, Thornton J, Jordan HA. The satiating efficiency of foods. Physiol Behav ; 32 2 : Benelam B. Our evidence-based guides are updated at least once per year to reflect and reference the latest science on the topic.
All our evidence-based health guides are written or reviewed by medical doctors who are experts on the topic. To stay unbiased we show no ads, sell no physical products, and take no money from the industry. Most information at Diet Doctor is free forever. Read more about our policies and work with evidence-based guides , nutritional controversies , our editorial team , and our medical review board.
Should you find any inaccuracy in this guide, please email andreas dietdoctor. Satiety refers to the absence of hunger during the time before you want to eat your next meal. However, for simplicity, we use satiety as a blended term that encompasses all feelings of fullness and not wanting to eat.
The following study shows micronutrients track well with protein content, suggesting higher protein meals provide higher nutrition. Frontiers in Nutrition Higher protein density diets are associated with greater diet quality and micronutrient intake in healthy young adults [nutritional epidemiology study with HR less than 2, very weak evidence].
PLoS One Testing protein leverage in lean humans: a randomized controlled experimental study [randomized trial; moderate evidence].
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition A high-protein diet induces sustained reductions in appetite, ad libitum caloric intake, and body weight despite compensatory changes in diurnal plasma leptin and ghrelin concentrations [randomized trial; moderate evidence].
Trends in Food Science and Technology Optimising foods for satiety [overview article; ungraded]. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition A satiety index of common foods [overview article; ungraded]. Obesity Reviews Protein leverage and energy intake [systematic review of randomized trials; strong evidence].
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition Protein leverage affects energy intake of high-protein diets in humans [randomized trial; moderate evidence]. PLoS One Testing protein leverage in lean humans: a randomised controlled experimental study [randomized trial; moderate evidence].
JAMA Network Trends in dietary carbohydrate, protein, and fat intake and diet quality among US adults, [cross-sectional observational study; very weak evidence].
Frontiers in Nutrition Higher protein density diets are associated with greater diet quality and micronutrient intake in healthy young adults [cross-sectional observational study; weak evidence].
Nutrients Risk of deficiency in multiple concurrent micronutrients in children and adults in the United States [cross-sectional observational study; weak evidence]. Journal of Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome Clinical evidence and mechanisms of high-protein diet-induced weight loss [overview article; ungraded].
Nutrition and Metabolism Diet induced thermogenesis. Nutrition and Metabolism A high-protein diet for reducing body fat: Mechanisms and possible caveats. Obesity Assessment of satiety depends on the energy density and portion size of the test meal [randomized trial; moderate evidence].
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition Dietary energy density in the treatment of obesity: a year-long trial comparing 2 weight-loss diets [randomized trial; moderate evidence]. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition Energy density of foods affects energy intake across multiple levels of fat content in lean and obese women [randomized trial; moderate evidence].
Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism The role of fiber in energy balance [overview article; ungraded]. One review on fiber concluded that with fixed energy intake, an increase in either soluble or insoluble fiber increases post-meal satiety and decreases hunger.
And with ad-lib caloric intake, higher fiber correlates with overall lower energy intake. Nutrition Reviews Dietary fiber and weight regulation [overview article; ungraded].
But a systematic review of studies that examined different fiber sources found inconsistent results, and only a minority of included studies reported improved satiety. Journal of The American College of Nutrition The effect of fiber on satiety and food intake: a systematic review [systematic review of randomized trials; strong evidence].
Cell Metabolism Ultra-processed diets cause excess calorie intake and weight gain: An inpatient randomized controlled trial of ad libitum food intake [randomized trial; moderate evidence]. Cell Metabolism Supra-additive effects of combining fat and carbohydrate on food reward [non-controlled study; weak evidence].
PLoS One Which foods may be addictive? The roles of processing, fat content, and glycemic load [non-controlled study; weak evidence]. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition Effects of dietary glycemic index on brain regions related to reward and craving in men [randomized trial; moderate evidence].
Journal of Nutrition Diets varying in carbohydrate content differentially alter brain activity in homeostatic and reward regions in adults [randomized trial; moderate evidence]. Scientific Reports Food texture influences on satiety: systematic review and meta-analysis [meta-analysis of randomized and nonrandomized trials; moderate evidence].
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition Effect of food variety on intake of a meal: a systematic review and meta-analysis [meta-analysis of randomized and nonrandomized trials; moderate evidence].
Clinical Nutrition The effect of eating rate on satiety in healthy and overweight people — A pilot study [randomized trial; moderate evidence]. Low carb for beginners All guides Foods Visual guides Side effects Meal plans.
Keto for beginners All guides Foods Visual guides Side effects Meal plans. What are high protein diets? Foods Snacks Meal plans. Higher-satiety eating High-satiety foods Satiety per calorie Satiety score Meal plans.
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Evidence based By Dr. Bret Scher, MD , medical review by Dr. Michael Tamber, MD — Updated November 8, Evidence based.
Facebook Tweet Pin LinkedIn. Why is satiety important? Eating foods that deliver more satiety per calorie can help you feel satisfied with fewer calories. Learn more The main factors Science suggests protein, energy density, fiber content, and hedonic factors play the biggest roles in satiety.
Read more Best choices: What are the most filling and satisfying foods that can help you lose weight? High-satiety food.
What is satiety? Why satiety per calorie? The science of satiety Multiple factors can affect how you feel satiety, hunger, or fullness. Based on nutrition science and clinical experience, we believe there are four well-established qualities that make a food more satisfying: protein percentage energy density fiber content a low hedonic factor Different factors, such as carbohydrate content, glycemic index, micronutrient content, speed of eating, and others may also contribute to satiety.
Protein percentage Research consistently shows that higher protein diets are more satiating than lower protein diets and that people eating more protein tend to eat fewer calories. High protein breakfast ideas Here are 25 tasty, healthy high protein breakfast recipes and ideas to start your day right — and help you lose weight, too.
High protein snacks, ranked High protein, low carb snacks keep you fuller longer. Here are 21 protein snacks ranked. Introducing our new satiety score Using our new satiety score will help you pick the right delicious foods for sustainable healthy weight loss.
The best high-satiety foods Which foods can help you feel full and satisfied while you lose weight? The science of satiety per calorie — the evidence This guide is written by Dr.
Nutrition Reviews Dietary fiber and weight regulation [overview article; ungraded] But a systematic review of studies that examined different fiber sources found inconsistent results, and only a minority of included studies reported improved satiety.
Low satiety refers to the inability to feel the sensation of fullness. People with low Isotonic drinks for athletes Satiety and reduced food intake iintake eat more than their bodies actually need because they cannot sense Endurance nutrition for high-intensity training to fod. Most overweight Satjety obese people have low satiety which is a major contributor to their condition. Low satiety is genetic. About 50 genes that regulate satiety in humans have been reported, of which FTO and MC4R are the two best known examples. The distribution of risk variants of these genes can be seen in the table below. People with low satiety tend to eat larger portions, eat more energy-dense, high-fat, high-sugar foods, and continue eating even after meals.
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