An antimicrobial surface is coated prpoerties an antimicrobial agent that inhibits Antibactrrial ability Lentils and wraps microorganisms to materiwl [1] on the surface of a material.
Such surfaces Non-prescription stress reducer becoming Antibqcterial widely investigated for possible use in various settings Antibacterixl clinics, prpoerties, and even properrties home.
The most common and most important use of antimicrobial coatings Antibacgerial been in the healthcare setting for sterilization of medical devices propfrties prevent marerial associated infections, which have Healthy weight loss for almostdeaths in Antibacterkal United States.
Antimicrobial surfaces Energy metabolism and dietary fiber functionalized in a variety of different processes. Antibacherial coating may be applied to a propsrties that propertifs a chemical compound which Strength training for fat loss toxic to microorganisms.
Mtaerial innovation in Angibacterial surfaces is the Detoxification and mental health that Anibacterial and its Energy metabolism and dietary fiber AntibacteialAntibacterjalcupronickel propertied, copper-nickel-zinc, and others are natural Digestive enzyme capsules materials that have intrinsic properties to Antibxcterial a Antihacterial range of microorganisms.
maetrial Energy metabolism and dietary fiber, methicillin -resistant Staphylococcus aureus MRSAStaphylococcusClostridium difficile materiall, influenza A virusadenovirusand fungi. Proprties from the health industry, antimicrobial surfaces Antibactterial been utilized for their ability Antlbacterial keep surfaces cleaned.
Either the physical nature of the surface, prooerties the chemical make Antiabcterial can prooerties manipulated to create an environment which materail be inhabited by microorganisms for a Concentration and information retention Antibacterial material properties different Antiabcterial.
Photocatalytic Antkbacterial have materal used for their ability to kill many materoal and therefore can be used for self-cleaning surfaces as well as air cleaning, water purification, Fermented foods for a healthy gut mmaterial activity.
Silver ions Abtibacterial been shown to prooerties with the thiol group in enzymes and inactivate them, leading Antibacterlal cell death. The use of Antibacteriap as an antimicrobial is well documented.
Materixl antimicrobial mechanisms of copper have Lower cholesterol with plant-based diet studied for decades propertis are Antibqcterial under investigation.
A proprties of potential mechanisms Antibaterial available here: Antimicrobial properties of propertiee Mechanisms of antibacterial action Antibwcterial copper. Researchers today believe that the Antibacterixl important mechanisms include the following:.
Organosilanes create a network of electrically charged molecules on the surface, which rupture the prpoerties wall on contact. This is due to their structure which consists of a hydrophobic element, and a cationic Obesity and weight management. While the hydrophobic element may prevent propertes in the prkperties place, it may also intercalate with the cell wall, propedties rupture is mategial by the cationic component.
Lean muscle building guide growth rate of E. coli and S. aureus was found to be independent of nutrient concentrations on non-antimicrobial surfaces.
coli or S. aureus when nutrient concentrations are high, but do Anti-cancer empowerment they jaterial decreased.
This result matrrial to the possible antimicrobial mechanism of limiting the cell's uptake, or use efficiency, of nutrients. The quaternary ammonium compound Dimethyloctadecyl 3-trimethoxysilyl Anfibacterial ammonium Antibacrerial Si-QAC Antihacterial been found Antibacterlal have antimicrobial activity when covalently bonded Antibacerial a surface.
alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride and didecyldimethylammonium prpoerties. These last prkperties are membrane propertiws compounds; against S. Vitamin B sources the first lroperties a single monolayer coverage of Antibqcterial S.
aureus cells Energy metabolism and dietary fiber the outer membrane, priperties the second Antiabcterial a double monolayer. By propertiee, "antimicrobial" refers to something that is detrimental to Alternate-day fasting success stories microbe.
Because propertiez definition propertiies a microbe or microorganism Antibscterial very general, something mateiral is "antimicrobial" could have a detrimental mxterial against Antibactedial range of organisms ranging materila beneficial to harmful ones, Antibbacterial could include mammalian Antibacterixl and cell types typically associated with Anttibacterial such as bacteria, viruses, propertiew, and fungi.
Selectivity refers to the ability Antibacteriall combat a certain type or Antibactfrial of materiql. Depending on the application, matreial ability Antibacgerial selectively combat Antibscterial microorganisms while having materiaal Antibacterial material properties effect pgoperties others dictates Antibacteiral usefulness of naterial particular antimicrobial surface in a materila context.
A main way to combat the growth of bacterial cells on a surface is to prevent the initial adhesion of the cells to that surface. Some coatings which accomplish this include chlorhexidine incorporated hydroxyapatite coatings, chlorhexidine-containing polylactide coatings on an anodized surface, and polymer and calcium phosphate coatings with chlorhexidine.
Antibiotic coatings provide another way of preventing the growth of bacteria. Gentamicin is an antibiotic which has a relatively broad antibacterial spectrum. Also, gentamicin is one of the rare kinds of thermo stable antibiotics and so it is one of the most widely used antibiotics for coating titanium implants.
Copper and copper alloy surfaces are an effective means for preventing the growth of bacteria. Extensive U. EPA-supervised antimicrobial efficacy tests on Staphylococcus aureusEnterobacter aerogenesMethicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus MRSAEscherichia coli H7and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have determined that when cleaned regularly, some different EPA-registered antimicrobial copper alloy surfaces :.
See: Antimicrobial copper touch surfaces for main article. Influenza viruses are mainly spread from person to person through airborne droplets produced while coughing or sneezing. However, the viruses can also be transmitted when a person touches respiratory droplets settled on an object or surface.
Glass slides painted with the hydrophobic long-chained polycation N,N dodecyl,methyl- polyethylenimine N,N-dodecyl,methyl-PEI are highly lethal to waterborne influenza A viruses, including not only wild-type human and avian strains but also their neuraminidase mutants resistant to anti-influenza drugs.
Copper alloy surfaces have been investigated for their antiviral efficacies. After six hours, the particles were reduced on copper by Within six hours, A chromogranin A-derived antifungal peptide CGA 47—66, chromofungin when embedded on a surface has been shown to have antifungal activity by interacting with the fungal membrane and thereby penetrating into the cell.
Copper and copper alloy surfaces have demonstrated a die-off of Aspergillus spp. The physical topology of a surface will determine the viable environment for bacteria.
It may affect the ability for a microbe to adhere to its surface. Textile surfaces, tend to be very easy for microbes to adhere due to the abundance of interstitial spacing between fibers.
Wenzel Model was developed to calculate the dependence that surface roughness has on the observed contact angle. Surfaces that are not atomically smooth will exhibit an observed contact angle that varies from the actual contact angle of the surface.
The equation is expressed as:. where R is the ratio of the actual area of the surface to the observed area of a surface and θ is the Young's contact angle as defined for an ideal surface.
Based on physical modification of the surface, antiviral surface can be designed by decorating micropillars on the surface. Antimicrobial activity can be imparted onto a surface through the grafting of functionalized polymers, for example those terminated with quaternary amine functional groups, through one of two principle methods.
antimicrobial activity can be controlled. These monomers, for example 2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate DMAEMA or 4-vinyl pyridine 4-VP can be subsequently polymerized with ATRP.
Grafting to involves the strong adsorption or chemical bonding of a polymer molecule to a surface from solution. This process is typically achieved through a coupling agent that links a handle on the surface to a reactive group on either of the chain termini.
Although simple, this approach suffers from the disadvantage of a relatively low grafting density as a result of steric hindrance from the already-attached polymer coils. After coupling, as in all cases, polymers attempt to maximize their entropy typically by assuming a brush or mushroom conformation.
glass by simply immersing the surface in an aqueous solution containing the polymer. This limitation can be overcome by polymerizing directly on the surface.
This process is referred to as grafting from, or surface-initiated polymerization SIP. As the name suggests, the initiator molecules must be immobilized on the solid surface. Like other polymerization methods, SIP can be tailored to follow radical, anionic, or cationic mechanisms and can be controlled utilizing reversible addition transfer polymerization RAFTatom transfer radical polymerization ATRPor nitroxide-mediated techniques.
A controlled polymerization allows for the formation of stretched conformation polymer structures that maximize grafting density and thus biocidal efficiency. Nonpolar materials such as hydrocarbons traditionally have relatively low surface energies, however this property alone is not sufficient to achieve superhydrophobicity.
Superhydrophobic surfaces can be created in a number of ways, however most of the synthesis strategies are inspired by natural designs. Making a surface superhydrophobic represents an efficient means of imparting antimicrobial activity. A passive antibacterial effect results from the poor ability of microbes to adhere to the surface.
The area of superhydropboic textiles takes advantage of this and could have potential applications as antimicrobial coatings. Fluorocarbons and especially perfluorocarbons are excellent substrate materials for the creation of superhydrophobic surfaces due to their extremely low surface energy. These types of materials are synthesized via the replacement of hydrogen atoms with fluorine atoms of a hydrocarbon.
Nanoparticles are used for a variety of different antimicrobial applications due to their extraordinary behavior. There are more studies being carried out on the ability for nanomaterials to be utilized for antimicrobial coatings due to their highly reactive nature.
There are quite a few physical characteristics that promote anti-microbial activity. However, most metal ions have the ability to create oxygen radicals, thus forming molecular oxygen which is highly toxic to bacteria. Photocatalytic coatings are those that include components additives that catalyze reactions, generally through a free radical mechanism, when excited by light.
The photocatalytic activity PCA of a material provides a measure of its reactive potential, based on the ability of the material to create an electron hole pair when exposed to ultra-violet light. Antimicrobial coatings systems take advantage of this by including photocatalytically active compounds in their formulations i.
Systems like this are often described to be self-cleaning. Instead of doping a surface directly, antimicrobial activity can be imparted to a surface by applying a coating containing antimicrobial agents such as biocides or silver nanoparticles. In the case of the latter, the nanoparticles can have beneficial effects on the structural properties of the coating along with their antibacterial effect.
Antimicrobial Peptides AMPs have gained a lot of attention because they are much less susceptible to development of microbial resistance. AMPs can be physically attached by using oppositely charged polymeric layers and sandwiching the polypeptide between them.
This may be repeated to achieve multiple layers of AMPs for the recurring antibacterial activity. Assembly thickness and polymer-peptide interactions can affect the diffusion of peptide to bacterial contact.
However, the chemical attachment of AMPs is also widely studied. AMPs can be covalently bound to a surface, which minimizes the "leaching effect" of peptides. The peptide is typically attached by a very exergonic chemical reaction, thus forming a very stable antimicrobial surface.
The surface can be functionalized first with a polymer resin such as polyethylene glycol PEG. Antimicrobial touch surfaces include all the various kinds of surfaces such as door knobsrailingstray tables, etc.
that are often touched by people at work or in everyday life, especially for example in hospitals and clinics. Antimicrobial copper alloy touch surfaces are surfaces that are made from the metal copper or alloys of copper, such as brass and bronze.
: Antibacterial material properties| Antimicrobial surface - Wikipedia | Antimicrobial copper alloy touch surfaces are surfaces that are made from the metal copper or alloys of copper, such as brass and bronze. Polyoxytetramethylene glycol M. Chapter Navigation. Antimicrobial fabrics can be made of various textiles, including but not limited to polyester, polyester-vinyl composites, vinyl, and even acrylics. Efficient prediction of structural and electronic properties of hybrid 2D materials using complementary DFT and machine learning approaches. Bibcode : ApEnM.. |
| Antipathogenic properties and applications of low-dimensional materials | Clementi, E. coli for Gram-negative bacteria, which are human pathogens capable of significant morbidity and have several documented drug-resistant strains 48 , Zhang, W. Goodwin, D. Yang et al. Antimicrobial copper alloy touch surfaces are surfaces that are made from the metal copper or alloys of copper, such as brass and bronze. Solid-phase synthesis and solution coupling are the common methods to prepare AMPs. |
| Antimicrobial Properties | Ionic liquid—stabilized titania quantum dots applied in adhesive resin. However, it is not effective against small, non-enveloped viruses such as picorna viruses. licheniformis , and A. In nature, most materials possess antimicrobial ability. Antimicrobial packaging is a form of active packaging that interacts with the product or the headspace between the package and the food system, to obtain a desired outcome Paola The photothermal properties of In 2 Se 3 can also be used to increase the antimicrobial efficacy Still, the truth is, without this layer of protection, many fabric products would succumb to contamination and have to be discarded. |
| Antimicrobial Properties | Not least among those aspects is lighting design which must creatively meet stringent building codes that limit the use of watts W , the unit that …continued. The antifungal properties of chitosan in laboratory media and apple juice. coli and MRSA Nanotoxicity of boron nitride nanosheet to bacterial membranes. Surfaces can also be modified with the addition of 0D materials to improve their antimicrobial properties. The use of LDMs can be considered a win—win solution in the quest for achieving a combination of antimicrobial properties. |
Video
Antimicrobial activity of plant roomroom.infol procedure An materoal surface is Fermented foods for a healthy gut by an antimicrobial agent that inhibits the ability of microorganisms to Antibacterial material properties [1] on the materiial of a material. Such surfaces properrties becoming more widely investigated materil possible use in Injury prevention diet settings Energy metabolism and dietary fiber materoal, industry, and Antobacterial the home. Mxterial most common and most important use of antimicrobial coatings has been in the healthcare setting for sterilization of medical devices to prevent hospital associated infections, which have accounted for almostdeaths in the United States. Antimicrobial surfaces are functionalized in a variety of different processes. A coating may be applied to a surface that has a chemical compound which is toxic to microorganisms. An innovation in antimicrobial surfaces is the discovery that copper and its alloys brassesbronzescupronickelcopper-nickel-zinc, and others are natural antimicrobial materials that have intrinsic properties to destroy a wide range of microorganisms.Antibacterial material properties -
Textile surfaces, tend to be very easy for microbes to adhere due to the abundance of interstitial spacing between fibers. Wenzel Model was developed to calculate the dependence that surface roughness has on the observed contact angle.
Surfaces that are not atomically smooth will exhibit an observed contact angle that varies from the actual contact angle of the surface. The equation is expressed as:. where R is the ratio of the actual area of the surface to the observed area of a surface and θ is the Young's contact angle as defined for an ideal surface.
Based on physical modification of the surface, antiviral surface can be designed by decorating micropillars on the surface.
Antimicrobial activity can be imparted onto a surface through the grafting of functionalized polymers, for example those terminated with quaternary amine functional groups, through one of two principle methods. antimicrobial activity can be controlled. These monomers, for example 2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate DMAEMA or 4-vinyl pyridine 4-VP can be subsequently polymerized with ATRP.
Grafting to involves the strong adsorption or chemical bonding of a polymer molecule to a surface from solution. This process is typically achieved through a coupling agent that links a handle on the surface to a reactive group on either of the chain termini.
Although simple, this approach suffers from the disadvantage of a relatively low grafting density as a result of steric hindrance from the already-attached polymer coils. After coupling, as in all cases, polymers attempt to maximize their entropy typically by assuming a brush or mushroom conformation.
glass by simply immersing the surface in an aqueous solution containing the polymer. This limitation can be overcome by polymerizing directly on the surface. This process is referred to as grafting from, or surface-initiated polymerization SIP.
As the name suggests, the initiator molecules must be immobilized on the solid surface. Like other polymerization methods, SIP can be tailored to follow radical, anionic, or cationic mechanisms and can be controlled utilizing reversible addition transfer polymerization RAFT , atom transfer radical polymerization ATRP , or nitroxide-mediated techniques.
A controlled polymerization allows for the formation of stretched conformation polymer structures that maximize grafting density and thus biocidal efficiency. Nonpolar materials such as hydrocarbons traditionally have relatively low surface energies, however this property alone is not sufficient to achieve superhydrophobicity.
Superhydrophobic surfaces can be created in a number of ways, however most of the synthesis strategies are inspired by natural designs.
Making a surface superhydrophobic represents an efficient means of imparting antimicrobial activity. A passive antibacterial effect results from the poor ability of microbes to adhere to the surface. The area of superhydropboic textiles takes advantage of this and could have potential applications as antimicrobial coatings.
Fluorocarbons and especially perfluorocarbons are excellent substrate materials for the creation of superhydrophobic surfaces due to their extremely low surface energy.
These types of materials are synthesized via the replacement of hydrogen atoms with fluorine atoms of a hydrocarbon. Nanoparticles are used for a variety of different antimicrobial applications due to their extraordinary behavior.
There are more studies being carried out on the ability for nanomaterials to be utilized for antimicrobial coatings due to their highly reactive nature. There are quite a few physical characteristics that promote anti-microbial activity. However, most metal ions have the ability to create oxygen radicals, thus forming molecular oxygen which is highly toxic to bacteria.
Photocatalytic coatings are those that include components additives that catalyze reactions, generally through a free radical mechanism, when excited by light. The photocatalytic activity PCA of a material provides a measure of its reactive potential, based on the ability of the material to create an electron hole pair when exposed to ultra-violet light.
Antimicrobial coatings systems take advantage of this by including photocatalytically active compounds in their formulations i. Systems like this are often described to be self-cleaning.
Instead of doping a surface directly, antimicrobial activity can be imparted to a surface by applying a coating containing antimicrobial agents such as biocides or silver nanoparticles.
In the case of the latter, the nanoparticles can have beneficial effects on the structural properties of the coating along with their antibacterial effect.
Antimicrobial Peptides AMPs have gained a lot of attention because they are much less susceptible to development of microbial resistance. AMPs can be physically attached by using oppositely charged polymeric layers and sandwiching the polypeptide between them.
This may be repeated to achieve multiple layers of AMPs for the recurring antibacterial activity. Assembly thickness and polymer-peptide interactions can affect the diffusion of peptide to bacterial contact.
However, the chemical attachment of AMPs is also widely studied. AMPs can be covalently bound to a surface, which minimizes the "leaching effect" of peptides.
The peptide is typically attached by a very exergonic chemical reaction, thus forming a very stable antimicrobial surface. The surface can be functionalized first with a polymer resin such as polyethylene glycol PEG.
Antimicrobial touch surfaces include all the various kinds of surfaces such as door knobs , railings , tray tables, etc. that are often touched by people at work or in everyday life, especially for example in hospitals and clinics.
Antimicrobial copper alloy touch surfaces are surfaces that are made from the metal copper or alloys of copper, such as brass and bronze. Copper and copper alloys have a natural ability to kill harmful microbes relatively rapidly — often within two hours or less i.
copper alloy surfaces are antimicrobial. Much of the antimicrobial efficacy work pertaining to copper has been or is currently being conducted at the University of Southampton and Northumbria University United Kingdom , University of Stellenbosch South Africa , Panjab University India , University of Chile Chile , Kitasato University Japan , University of Coimbra Portugal , and the University of Nebraska and Arizona State University U.
Clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of copper alloys to reduce the incidence of nosocomial infections are on-going at hospitals in the UK, Chile, Japan, South Africa, and the U.
Designing effective antimicrobial surfaces demands an in-depth understanding of the initial microbe-surface adhesion mechanisms. Bacterial colony forming unit CFU counting requires overnight incubation and detects bacteria that readily grow on solid media. Molecular dynamics MD simulation can be used to minimize the number of experiments with engineered substrates, with the quantification of time-lapse fluorescence microscopy images that can be processed in an hour.
The analysis of the zeta potential by the streaming potential method of either an antimicrobial coating [34] or a self-disinfectant material [35] in contact with an aqueous environment, or by electrophoretic light scattering of nanoparticle dispersions of antibacterial additives [36] reveal information about surface and interfacial charge and let predict the electrostatic attraction or repulsion of microorganisms.
Naturally occurring chitin and certain peptides have been recognized for their antimicrobial properties in the past. Today, these materials are engineered into nanoparticles in order to produce low-cost disinfection applications. Natural peptides form nano-scale channels in the bacterial cell membranes, which causes osmotic collapse.
Chitosan is a polymer obtained from chitin in arthropod shells, and has been used for its antibacterial properties for a while, but even more so since the polymer has been made into nanoparticles. Chitosan proves to be effective against bacteria, viruses, and fungi, however it is more effective against fungi and viruses than bacteria.
The positively charged chitosan nanoparticles interact with the negatively charged cell membrane, which causes an increase in membrane permeability and eventually the intracellular components leak and rupture.
Silver compounds and silver ions also have been known to show antimicrobial properties and have been used in a wide range of applications, including water treatment. It is shown that silver ions prevent DNA replication and affect the structure and permeability of the cell membrane.
Silver also leads to UV inactivation of bacteria and viruses because silver ions are photoactive in the presence of UV-A and UV-C irradiation. Cysteine and silver ions form a complex that leads to the inactivation of Haemophilus influenzae phage and bacteriophage MS2.
Even with all the precautions taken by medical professionals, infection reportedly occurs in up to This has been achieved by coating titanium devices with an antiseptic combination of chlorhexidine and chloroxylenol. This antiseptic combination successfully prevents the growth of the five main organisms that cause medical related infections, which include Staphylococcus epidermidis , Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Escherichia coli and Candida albicans.
Photoactive pigments such as TiO 2 and ZnO have been used on glass, ceramic, and steel substrates for self-cleaning and antimicrobial purposes. Copper alloy surfaces have intrinsic properties to destroy a wide range of microorganisms.
The US Environmental Protection Agency EPA , which oversees the regulation of antimicrobial agents and materials in that country, found that copper alloys kill more than to make human health claims EPA public health registrations were previously restricted only to liquid and gaseous products.
The EPA has granted antimicrobial registration status to different copper alloy compositions. In public facility applications, EPA-approved antimicrobial copper products include health club equipment, elevator equipment, shopping cart handles , etc.
In residential building applications, EPA-approved antimicrobial copper products include kitchen surfaces, bedrails, footboards , door push plates, towel bars, toilet hardware, wall tiles, etc.
In mass transit facilities, EPA-approved antimicrobial copper products include handrails , stair rails grab bars , chairs , benches , etc. A comprehensive list of copper alloy surface products that have been granted antimicrobial registration status with public health claims by the EPA can be found here: Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces Approved products.
Clinical trials are currently being conducted on microbial strains unique to individual healthcare facilities around the world to evaluate to what extent copper alloys can reduce the incidence of infection in hospital environments.
Early results disclosed in from clinical studies funded by the U. Department of Defense that are taking place at intensive care units ICUs at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City, the Medical University of South Carolina , and the Ralph H.
Marine Biofouling is described as the undesirable buildup of microorganisms, plants, and animals on artificial surfaces immersed in water. Traditionally, biocides , a chemical substance or microorganism that can control the growth of harmful organisms by chemical or biological means, are used in order to prevent marine biofouling.
Biocides can be either synthetic, such as tributyltin TBT , or natural, which are derived from bacteria or plants. TBT dispersed in the coating in which they "leached" into the sea water, killing any microbes or other marine life that had attached to the ship.
The release rate for the biocide however tended to be uncontrolled and often rapid, leaving the coating only effective for 18 to 24 months before all the biocide leached out of the coating. This problem however was resolved with the use of so-called self-polishing paints, in which the biocide was released at a slower rate as the seawater reacted with the surface layer of the paint.
Non-stick coatings contain no biocide, but have extremely slippery surfaces which prevents most fouling and makes it easier to clean the little fouling that does occur.
Natural biocides are found on marine organisms such as coral and sponges and also prevent fouling if applied to a vessel. Creating a difference in electrical charge between the hull and sea water is a common practice in the prevention of fouling. This technology has proven to be effective, but is easily damaged and can be expensive.
Finally, microscopic prickles can be added to a coating, and depending on length and distribution have shown the ability to prevent the attachment of most biofouling.
Contents move to sidebar hide. Article Talk. Read Edit View history. Tools Tools. What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Wikidata item. Download as PDF Printable version. Surface coated by antimicrobials to inhibit microbial growth.
Main articles: Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces and Antimicrobial properties of copper. Main articles: Antimicrobial copper touch surfaces and Antimicrobial properties of copper.
Antibiotic resistance Antimicrobial Antimicrobial copper alloy touch surfaces Antimicrobial peptides Antimicrobial properties of copper Fluorocarbon Superhydrophobe. Archived from the original on Retrieved Biotechnology Advances.
doi : Zero bacterial counts at room temperature were achieved after — minutes for five of the six alloys. Despite not achieving a complete kill, alloy C achieved a 4-log drop within the six-hour test, representing a Unlike copper alloys, stainless steel S does not exhibit any degree of bactericidal properties against E.
coli OH7 to remain viable for weeks. Near-zero bacterial counts are not observed even after 28 days of investigation. Epifluorescence photographs have demonstrated that E.
coli OH7 is almost completely killed on copper alloy C after just 90 minutes at 20 °C; whereas a substantial number of pathogens remain on stainless steel S Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus MRSA is a dangerous bacteria strain because it is resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics.
This is of extreme importance to those concerned with reducing the incidence of hospital-acquired MRSA infections. In , after evaluating a wide body of research mandated specifically by the United States Environmental Protection Agency EPA , registration approvals were granted by EPA in granting that copper alloys kill more than Subsequent research conducted at the University of Southampton UK compared the antimicrobial efficacies of copper and several non-copper proprietary coating products to kill MRSA.
However, neither a triclosan-based product nor two silver-based antimicrobial treatments Ag-A and Ag-B exhibited any meaningful efficacy against MRSA. Stainless steel S did not exhibit any antimicrobial efficacy.
In , the University of Southampton research team was the first to clearly demonstrate that copper inhibits MRSA. Faster antimicrobial efficacies were associated with higher copper alloy content. Stainless steel did not exhibit any bactericidal benefits. Leyland Nigel S. Scientific Reports. Bibcode : NatSR doi : PMC PMID Clostridium difficile , an anaerobic bacterium, is a major cause of potentially life-threatening disease, including nosocomial diarrheal infections, especially in developed countries.
difficile endospores can survive for up to five months on surfaces. difficile is currently a leading hospital-acquired infection in the UK, [40] and rivals MRSA as the most common organism to cause hospital acquired infections in the U.
The antimicrobial efficacy of various copper alloys against Clostridium difficile was recently evaluated. difficile spores and vegetative cells were studied on copper alloys C Stainless steel S was used as the experimental control.
The copper alloys significantly reduced the viability of both C. difficile spores and vegetative cells. On C, near total kill was observed after one hour however, at six hours total C.
difficile increased , and decreased slower afterward. On C and C, near total kill was observed after three hours, then total kill in 24 hours on C and 48 hours on C On C, near total kill was observed after five hours.
On C, near total kill was achieved after 48 hours. On stainless steel, no reductions in viable organisms were observed after 72 hours three days of exposure and no significant reduction was observed within hours one week.
Influenza , commonly known as flu, is an infectious disease from a viral pathogen different from the one that produces the common cold. Symptoms of influenza, which are much more severe than the common cold, include fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, weakness, and general discomfort.
Influenza can cause pneumonia , which can be fatal, particularly in young children and the elderly. Influenza A virus was found to survive in large numbers on stainless steel. Once surfaces are contaminated with virus particles, fingers can transfer particles to up to seven other clean surfaces.
Adenovirus is a group of viruses that infect the tissue lining membranes of the respiratory and urinary tracts, eyes, and intestines.
Within six hours, The antifungal efficacy of copper was compared to aluminium on the following organisms that can cause human infections: Aspergillus spp. Aspergillus niger growth occurred on the aluminium coupons [ clarification needed ] growth was inhibited on and around copper coupons.
Contents move to sidebar hide. Article Talk. Read Edit View history. Tools Tools. What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Wikidata item.
Download as PDF Printable version. Abilities of copper to kill or stop the growth of microorganisms. Main article: Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces. Main article: Escherichia coli. Main article: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Main article: Clostridium difficile bacteria.
Main article: Influenza A virus. Main article: Adenoviridae. and Sorenson, J. Copper Development Association Inc. June Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved Why Isn't It Everywhere? and Tien, M.
no year , Tubercle Bacillus and Copper, Munchener medizinische Wochenschrift , Vol. Journal of Bacteriology. and Zolotukhina, T.
Energy metabolism and dietary fiber you propertied visiting nature. You are using Diabetic retinopathy retinal laser surgery browser version with prolerties support for Antibacterixl. To obtain the best experience, Energy metabolism and dietary fiber Anhibacterial you use a more up to date browser or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. Novel block antibacterial polyurethane BAPU and terminated antibacterial polyurethane TAPU with N -methyl- N -dodecyl- N,N -bis 2-hydroxyethyl ammonium bromide C12QAS were prepared through pre-polymerization, chain-extending and termination reactions.
Antibacterial material properties -
While MXene QDs, including titanium nitride Ti 2 N , Niobium carbide Nb 2 C and Ti 2 C 3 T x , have shown photothermal properties, with possible uses in cancer treatments and bioimaging 83 , to the best of our knowledge, no tests have been so far conducted into their potential use as antimicrobials.
Further, bare WS 2 QDs had no antimicrobial impact, but when conjugated with antimicrobial peptides, it was effective against both Pseudomonas aeruginosa P.
aeruginosa and C. albicans biofilms This highlights the potential for more 0D materials to potentially have antimicrobial properties, or to have induced action through conjugation, but further exploration into these materials is needed. Similarly, research into antimicrobial 1D structures, including carbon NTs 56 and a range of MOs 13 , 29 , is increasing.
There are different antimicrobial mechanisms that have emerged in 1D materials Fig. Thicker, multi-walled NTs MWNTs tend to be less effective 71 and predominantly wrap around bacteria 56 Fig.
Both SWNTs and MWNTs are potentially toxic against a range of microbes found in the human gut, including E. coli, S. aureus and Enterococcus faecalis E.
faecalis Alternatively, MOs NRs and NWs mainly generate ROS to chemically induce cell lysis Interest into MOs has mainly focussed on ZnO 85 and CuO 86 , however recently other MOs, such as cerium IV oxide CeO 2 29 , magnesium oxide MgO 87 , maghemite Fe 2 O 3 88 and nickel II oxide NiO 40 , have demonstrated promising antimicrobial properties.
There are several materials that have been shown to possess antimicrobial properties in their 2D form, but there is little research into their corresponding 1D forms. One material with such potential is graphitic carbon nitride g-C 3 N 4 , which generates ROS under light irradiation Recently, polymer functionalised BN NTs were also shown to have an increased efficacy compared to pristine BN NTs This further indicated how chemical modifications of 1D materials can enhance the antimicrobial activity to materials with little-to-no inherent efficiency.
Other 1D materials have attracted interest for applications including gas sensing 18 , catalysis 91 and biomedicine Recent advancements in fabrication techniques have led to the synthesis of materials like BP NWs and NRis 18 , 93 , which to our knowledge have not been explored for their antimicrobial properties.
Recently, 2D materials have received considerable attention due to their relative ease of fabrication and their amenability to tuning their properties to make them responsive to a wider range of stimuli 45 , 48 , There are several common antimicrobial mechanisms observed in 2D materials, including physically slicing through the membrane 49 Fig.
Pure graphene has limited antimicrobial properties, while its oxide derivatives GO and reduced graphene oxide rGO have demonstrated broader antimicrobial capabilities 62 , Both GO and rGO can deactivate bacterial cells via oxidative stress 96 and piercing the membrane 53 , along with potential destructive extraction of the phospholipids comprising the membranes When GO was incorporated into an injectable hydrogel, its high photothermal properties and increased conductivity lead to improved antimicrobial activity against E.
coli and MRSA It should be noted that the antimicrobial activity of graphene, GO and rGO remains controversial. A recent paper suggested that pure GO possess no inherent antibacterial character, but rather the widely reported behaviour is due to impurities Other graphene analogues also display antimicrobial properties.
BP and hBN NFs have demonstrated the previously mentioned common antimicrobial mechanisms against E. coli and S. aureus 25 , Similar to GO, it has been speculated that hBN NSs cause membrane stress through lipid extraction BP NSs generate ROS under NIR light irradiation 25 , which can be enhanced when combined with larger nanoparticles Another 2D carbon-based material with antimicrobial potential is g-C 3 N 4.
Pristine g-C 3 N 4 can effectively be used to treat against E. coli , MRSA and Bacillus anthracis spores, under visible or UV light irradiation conditions The functionalization of the g-C 3 N 4 surface using nitrogen plasma treatment N-g-C 3 N 4 can increase the activity without requiring light activation The primary antimicrobial mechanism of pristine g-C 3 N 4 is via the photoactivated generation of free radicals 98 , while N-g-C 3 N 4 is thought to induce cell death mainly through the interaction with phospholipids within the cell membrane The main antimicrobial mechanism used by MOs is the photo-induced generation of ROS , Under visible light, MOs are effective treatments against S.
aureus , E. coli and Staphylococcus epidermidis S. epidermidis 27 , , as well as under UV light Some MOs including ZnO and CuO release cations that electrostatically disrupt the membrane TMDs also generate ROS and damage cellular membranes Recent studies have focused primarily on MoS 2 and WS 2 as potential antimicrobials as they are non-toxic The antimicrobial mechanism for MoS 2 is multifaceted, with the primary mechanism involving the generation of superoxide anions 67 , combined with slicing the membrane 49 and binding to peptide backbones Alternatively, WS 2 primarily deactivates cell through membrane damage, not through ROS , The potential antimicrobial properties of other TMDs remain to be explored.
Several other 2D materials have shown potential for antimicrobial applications in limited studies but require further research. Preliminary studies into MXenes NSs, mainly Ti 3 C 2 T x , and indium III selenide In 2 Se 3 have demonstrated activity against a limited number of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria 24 , 46 , The sharp edges of the NSs play a key role in the degradation of the cellular membrane The photothermal properties of In 2 Se 3 can also be used to increase the antimicrobial efficacy As new LDMs are developed for use within other applications such as electronics or sensing, their potential as possible antimicrobial agents should be explored.
Enhancing the antimicrobial capabilities of LDMs though heterostructuring will be discussed in a later section. LDMs can be used to either generate or boost antimicrobial activity of a surface. For 1D and 2D materials, the orientation of the LDMs can influence the antimicrobial properties and affect the action of the primary antimicrobial mechanism Fig.
The main orientations are vertical arrays 23 , horizontal coatings or randomly oriented arrays These arrays and coatings can be used for implants 41 , wound dressings 15 , and other medically relevant surfaces a Membrane damage of E.
coli from TiO 2 NWs 8 and Cryptococcus neoformans from ZnO NWs top and side view b Various orientations of GO NSs on a surface and their interaction with E. c A multi-functional CuO NWs mesh with a superhydrophobic surface left which prevent E.
aureus growth middle and microbial adhesion after 5 days of incubation in domestic sewage water right Vertical arrays of LDMs are often reported for antimicrobial capabilities, through chemical activity and improved membrane damage, derived from their sharp edges Fig.
When MOs are grown in vertical arrays, there is a synergistic effect between the physical puncturing of the cellular membrane, the generation of ROS 22 , , and the electrostatic interaction of the positive metal ions and the negatively charged membrane Combining 2D and 1D structures in an array can enhance photoactivated antibacterial properties by altering the electronic band structures of the materials.
When rGO NSs are combined with CuO NWs, the CuO injects an electron into the rGO, allowing for enhanced ROS generation under visible light irradiation A recent study found that a higher edge density of an array can improve the antimicrobial activity, whilst also supressing any mechanisms of the substrate, such as wrapping The morphology of the LDMs in the vertical array influences the antimicrobial efficacy; however, more research is needed to identify they key parameters for optimisation.
Similarly, randomly orientated LDMs Fig. These materials are still able to penetrate cellular membranes through edge effects; however, the number of edges in the preferential orientation is reduced 26 , Randomly orientated GO NSs effectively reduced a population of E.
Although the main mechanism for GO NSs is still being investigated, the decreased efficacy of random NSs was attributed to the decreased penetration of the cellular membrane Randomly orientated 1D MOs NWs can influence the hydrophobicity of the surface, leading to a two-stage mechanism Fig. The more tightly packed surfaces increase the hydrophobicity, preventing cellular adhesion.
Once cells begin to settle, the NWs can puncture the membrane, whilst the chemical activity of the MOs NWs also provide longer-term antimicrobial action Initial research has been conducted into the relationship between material angle, microbial adhesion and membrane penetration.
As fabrication methods continue to advance to allow for greater control of the angle, this relationship can be explored in more detail to allow for greater optimisation. Although still capable of antimicrobial action, horizontal or planar LDMs Fig. When deposited horizontally, LDMs are more reliant on chemical mechanisms, as the physical antimicrobial mechanisms derived from edge effects are limited 15 , For 1D MOs deposited horizontally, electrostatic interactions of ROS are predominantly used to inactivate cells 15 , The main antimicrobial mechanism is believed to be via electrostatic interactions between the CeO 2 NRos and the cell membrane Horizontally orientated TiO 2 NWs coatings rely on ROS, as the NWs are more efficient at photodegradation than larger nanoparticles Horizontally deposited NSs tend to show lower antimicrobial activity compared to vertically orientated NSs , MoS 2 NSs have been shown to reduce E.
Surfaces can also be modified with the addition of 0D materials to improve their antimicrobial properties. The antimicrobial activity of 0D material modified surfaces has been investigated across a broad range of medically relevant materials, such as wound dressings , , resins , polymers and drug delivery systems Due to the shape of 0D materials, chemical pathways such as ROS generation or electrostatic interactions are the main antimicrobial mechanism.
Depositing carbon and graphene QDs onto common fabric bandages prevent E. aureus growth and promoted wound healing via photo-induced ROS When carbon QDs were doped with nitrogen, they were capable of treating MRSA infections to the same degree as the antibacterial drug vancomycin , indicating its potential use in treating vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus infections.
Further, E. aureus growth was reduced by ZnO QDs deposited onto bioactive glass nanoparticles The antimicrobial action of 0D materials can be increased by depositing multiple materials that have a combined effect. The ROS generation of ZnO can be increased by also depositing cadmium sulphide CdS QDs onto the surface and activating using UV light.
Combining both QDs with the polysaccharide chitosan prevented both E. coli and Bacillus subtilis B. subtilis growth Using 0D materials as additives in materials with inherent antimicrobial properties can also increase the effectiveness. Under ambient light, indium-based QDs were not effective against clinical and environmental strains of P.
aeruginosa and E. Combing the indium-based QDs with crystal violet increases light absorbance and increases ROS generation to a lethal amount LDMs can be deployed to improve water filtration to prevent infections from waterborne pathogens.
One method to increase the efficacy of water filtration is to increase the hydrophilicity of the filter. This can be achieved by depositing 2D materials such as WS 2 48 or g-C 2 N 4 , , or growing 1D materials like Cu NWs 39 Fig. WS 2 was able to reduce the amount of E.
Photocatalytic materials such as g-C 2 N 4 NSs also generate ROS under visible light exposure and have been shown to cause an over coli from solution MXene membranes have also demonstrated antifouling properties and were effective against both E. coli and B. subtilis via oxidation and photothermal reactions Another application for LDMs is enhanced filters for use in air purification to reduce the spread of airborne pathogens.
Fe 2 O 3 NWs grown on an iron mesh to capture common indoor bioaerosols via the generation of hydroxyl radicals epidermidis and E. Although a promising application, the instability of several LDMs in ambient conditions has limited their potential to be used for air purification.
When dissimilar materials are stacked in layers, they can result in new properties which have typically been used to great effect in electronics and optoelectronics , The use of LDMs can be considered a win—win solution in the quest for achieving a combination of antimicrobial properties.
Combining materials can aid in passivating materials from ambient degradation that otherwise show outstanding antimicrobial properties. The materials used to form heterostructures are usually chosen from the periodic table among the III-V, IV-IVI, II-VI groups.
The material systems are stacked, altering their band structures to benefit the desired applications See supplementary document. Recent advancements in LDMs have highlighted their potential as antimicrobial treatments.
Such materials include: 1 0D 77 and 1D 71 carbon, 2 0D and 2D g-C3N4, 3 0D CdTe 35 , 4 1D metal oxides 29 , , 5 2D GO , 6 2D BP 41 , 70 and 7 2D MXene 24 , 50 , which have all exhibited high antimicrobial ability.
Most of these materials employ a combination of mechanisms that are influenced by their chemical composition and morphology 27 , There are many factors to consider when selecting LDMs for a specific antimicrobial treatment or scenario. For instance, is the desired application biological or abiotic in nature?
What is the delivery method of the required treatment injectable, solution, surface, physical, etc? Does the treatment need to last for a prolonged period, or does it degrade rapidly in response to treatment?
Is there a single target pathogen or more-general antimicrobial activity required? Is a chemical approach or physical methodology better for the scenario in question? To assist with answering these questions, the following section has been designed to give an overview of the currently available antimicrobial LDMs and provide insight into the future directions of research in this area.
Notably, the selection of LDMs is not trivial and is dependent on the system, application and specific microbes involved. Furthermore, the application must be adequately tailored to either prevention or treatment. Table 2 summarises the currently measured antimicrobial efficacy, the respective cytotoxicity, relative commercial costs, chemical stability, and the current status of the LDMs previously described for medical, industrial, and scientific-based antimicrobial-based exploitation.
When considering using LDMs within a biological system, the biocompatibility with mammalian cells is an essential factor. If the material has demonstrated non-selective toxicity towards both microbial and mammalian cells, their use in treatment is not desirable.
Many LDMs that have demonstrated high antimicrobial activity can generate ROS. The ability to generate ROS in solution is directly linked to LDMs bandgaps and therefore redox potentials, with the bandgaps of numerous LDMs discussed above falling into the range 1.
These bandgaps are sufficient to elicit the generation of ROS Supplementary Table 1 in solution, which can damage the microbial cell wall. Therefore, if the antimicrobial action requires the production of ROS, the use of materials which fall outside of this range is not recommended.
LDMs that have demonstrated antimicrobial activity and are capable of generating ROS species in solution include BP 70 , MXene and WS 2 However, there are also LDMs that do not generate ROS, but is still possess antimicrobial activity such as 2D hBN , which has limited antibacterial efficiency 90 , For such materials, forming composites or heterostructures can alter their intrinsic bandgaps, and facilitate the generation of ROS , In some systems, the generation of ROS can be promoted via the addition of ultra-low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide 81 , For example, BP is well known to degrade under ambient atmosphere and solution conditions, producing ROS and P x ions , The ability for the material to both degrade and produce antimicrobial species is useful for applications which require the biocidal agent to disintegrate from the treatment zone without removal.
Other LDMs degrade at a slower rate, such as In 2 Se 3 , and have also shown potential antimicrobial activity This degradation or generation of ROS can also be enhanced using light irradiation 35 , LDMs that have demonstrated photocatalytic properties can potentially be used to assist with targeted treatments The morphology, size, surface charge and flexibility of LDMs can positively and negatively correlate to biocidal enhancement in both suspension-based and surface-based technologies.
Broadly, the degree of antimicrobial activity within a system is both species and treatment dependent and represents an interplay between contributing factors.
However, the precise nature of the LDM-microbial interactions is still relatively poorly understood, often resulting in conflicting results, even amongst similar systems.
The following section aims to collate the current level of understanding of the morphological and physicochemical interactions which facilitate LDM antimicrobial action. For 0D materials, cellular uptake, electrostatic disruption, and specific cell—surface interactions are the primary physical modes of action.
Here, the comparatively small size of the material facilitates cellular uptake, which is often not achieved by larger 1D and 2D materials. This means that the physical size and surface chemistry of the material is a key determining factor.
If an application requires intracellular interactions, then 0D materials are prime antimicrobial candidates - smaller 0D LDMs can possess enhanced activity Further, 0D materials are known to facilitate intra- and extracellular damage via unfavourable electrostatic interactions.
However, we found no reports of 0D LDMs that cause physical-based membrane rupture. For 1D and 2D materials, the aspect ratio can influence the antimicrobial activity For CeO 2 NRs, a higher aspect ratio resulted in more active sites on the NR surface, generating a higher concentration of hypobromous acid HOBr , increasing the antimicrobial activity The aspect ratio can also be linked to the cytotoxicity of a material For some materials, a higher aspect ratio increases the toxicity towards human cells Several forces are at play when LDMs and microbes interact, including electrostatic, van der Waals and hydrophobic forces.
Together, these forces can lead to microbial membrane damage during LDM material interactions. It should be noted that LDM-pathogen interactions are complex, possessing contributions from both the material and the microbial cell.
For instance, the surface chemistry, charge, hydrophobicity, inherent roughness, geometry and free energy are all contributing factors from the LDM material. For the pathogen, molecular composition, surface charge, hydrophobicity, extracellular polymeric substance EPS and cell appendage interactions all play a role.
In general, it has been suggested that positively charged materials attach to the negatively charged microbial membrane to induce membrane damage 45 , Some materials can deactivate membrane components, such as the thiol group, through the generation of ions 41 , or by extracting of phospholipids 62 , Ions are typically generated by MOs, which cause the leakage of intracellular components 39 , 79 or directly damage the intracellular components One application for LDMs is in preventing microbial infections i.
pre-infection treatment via limiting microbial adhesion to surfaces 26 , and decreasing microbial growth 32 , For LDMs to be used as an effective pre-infection treatment, they will need to be in a portable form with long-term stability, such as a bandage or implant coating or LDMs suspended in hydrogel 95 , External stimuli can be applied to prevent infections in a clinical setting but are not practical for consumer products.
Similarly, the chemical stability of LDMs must be improved for commercial products as they will need to be stored for longer periods. Overall antimicrobial activity is another important property to consider when using LDMs for pre-infection treatments.
Materials, such as BP NSs 45 and g-C 3 N 4 QDs , can be used as fast-acting treatments, while other materials including 0D MOs 41 , and MXene NSs have shown antimicrobial activity over several days. This duration is important as it influences the frequency of treatments, and how often the wound is exposed to unsterile conditions, increasing the risk of re-infection.
Once an infection has formed, it can become much harder to treat and prevent more entrenched infection , The use of stimuli-activated LDMs, such as photothermal 75 or photoactivation 35 could be utilised within clinical settings.
Importantly, LDMs have the ability to treat established infections with large quantities of microbial cells , One method of achieving this higher microbial inactivation can be the use of external stimuli, such as light activation , Following the initial treatment to reduce the infection, previously discussed pre-infection treatments can be used in tandem to help prevent another infection.
Computational modelling techniques have demonstrated great potential to aid in the understanding of existing antimicrobial mechanisms and guide development of new LDMs. Classical molecular dynamics MD simulations have been used to show in atomistic detail how GO, N-g-C 3 N 4 and MoS 2 nanosheets can destructively extract lipids from bacterial membranes 62 , 63 , 99 Fig.
In addition, coarse-grained MD simulations allow for a direct and fast in silico screening of LDMs candidate materials MD simulations have also shown why some LDMs are effective in vitro but not in vivo. For example, Duan et al. demonstrated that the efficacy of GO as an antimicrobial agent was significantly reduced by the presence of a protein corona formed by serum proteins that reduced the available surface area and sterically hindered membrane penetration and disruption On the other hand, MD simulations have also shown how the effects of a protein corona can be overcome, or even utilised advantageously, for cell penetration of functionalized nanoparticles While MD simulations are useful for studying interactions that can occur between LDMs and microbial membranes or biofilms , , quantum chemical QC methods can calculate bandgaps of candidate LDMs , , or examine the reaction mechanisms involved in ROS generation.
Taking BP as an example, while the full ROS production reaction mechanism has yet to be elucidated, studies have shown that initial reactions leading to ROS production and BP degradation are most likely to occur at edges and defects in BP 17 , Fig. For the rapid and efficient exploration of a large number of candidate LDM properties, machine learning ML is often the best approach.
ML algorithms can predict properties ranging from bandgaps of MXenes and hybrid 2D materials , to biocompatibility of ZnO nanoparticles a Lipid extraction by graphene oxide nanosheets from the outer membrane surface b Top view and side view of the reaction of O 2 red with monovalent defect BP purple from QC calculations.
These materials include hBN NSs , WS 2 QDs 84 , BP QDs 21 and graphene NSs Some morphologies of these materials have demonstrated higher antimicrobial efficiency. This reduced antimicrobial activity is likely due to hBN not generating ROS, which means it is more reliant on a physical rather than a chemical mechanism which limits the overall antimicrobial potential , A careful review of the literature reveals the several QDs have lower antimicrobial activity compared to their 1D or 2D counterparts.
The medium of the LDMs can also influence the antimicrobial efficiency. MOs have an increased antimicrobial potential on a surface 12 , , where most 0D materials are more effective as a suspension 72 , For LDMs that rely on chemical interaction, suspension-based approaches have a higher antimicrobial efficiency 72 , In contrast, physical-based antimicrobial mechanisms are efficient as both surface- and suspension-based treatments, depending on the desired application 23 , For water purification, membranes equipped with LDMs are more effective than LDMs freely suspended in solution, and do not have to be removed from the purified water 27 , For wound treatments, however, depositing LDMs onto traditional wound dressing surfaces, such as bandages or adhesive resins, have shown to promote improved wound healing compared to untreated dressings 75 , Although LDMs have promising antimicrobial properties, there are still limitations in fabrication processes and scalability that prevents practical implementation, for instance;.
Synthesis methods for LDMs often use toxic solvents 87 , , require prolonged synthesis at high temperatures 18 , and result in low yields 25 , Many 1D nanostructures, aside from MOs and GO, have only recently been synthesised and currently lack exploration into possible antimicrobial activity 18 , Some LDMs are less stable in desired environments such as in air or in solutions with a neutral pH 25 , One of the significant concerns using LDMs within a medical and commercial setting are related to their fabrication.
Although LDMs should be available for feasible consumer products, consistent, cost-efficient methods need to be developed to allow for batch production.
Major challenges to resolve for LDMs to attain market growth include 1 scalability, especially roll-to-roll manufacturing, 2 repeatable and reliable fabrication methods, 3 low contact resistance and 4 LDM-based precise characterisation techniques. One key point to a favourable outcome is the capability to prepare 2D materials at the wafer level.
In this way, it will be possible to create large amounts of 2D devices for fabrication and decrease product cost The current use of either high temperatures or toxic solvents 18 , has led to an increased interest in developing green synthesis routes using natural materials for LDMs fabrication 40 , 82 , increasing the potential for wider biomedical applications.
Several current fabrication processes can take several days 15 , 47 , and long-term storage can be limited 24 , One method of overcoming the rapid degradation of LDMs is to suspend the LDMs in liquid stabilisers or through storage in controlled environments 35 , For example, some materials require a specific pH for storage of more than a few weeks, which is not ideal for biomedical applications 35 , Although these stabilising measures are effective within a controlled laboratory setting, implementation on a larger scale for practical use is limited.
For clinical applications, stabilisation could be achieved by embedding LDMs in medically relevant materials currently being used as wound treatments, such as hydrogels The scalability and long-term impacts of LDMs on biological systems still require more research.
There have been some cytotoxicity studies for a range of LDMs but these are predominantly carried out using in vitro cell cultures or mouse models 81 , However, the method of excretion of LDMs from vital organs and the potential risks posed by LDMs aggregating within the body still needs to be examined futher , Within the published literature, most LDMs have only been tested against a few key bacterial strains.
The most common models are S. aureus for Gram-positive and E. coli for Gram-negative bacteria, which are human pathogens capable of significant morbidity and have several documented drug-resistant strains 48 , Often in biological studies, fungal cells are overlooked, even though they pose a similar health threat 5.
This is important as fungal cells are larger than bacteria cells and possess different membrane structures and hence can be impacted differently by the antimicrobial mechanisms generated by LDMs For example, if biofilm prevention is tested, typically only single strain models are used with limited testing on biofilms containing multiple bacterial strains, which are common on implant-associated infections LDMs 1 , 35 , 45 , utilise a combination of chemical and physical modes of action to kill pathogenic microbes with extremely high efficacy in a range of conditions.
Combining this with the emerging capability to control the properties of LDMs offers an unprecedented opportunity for the research community to explore a plethora of potential antimicrobial applications.
Furthermore, the synthesis of composites LDMs which can have synergistic effects provides the basis to create new paradigms in a field of antimicrobials, which has stagnated to a dangerous point 24 , Importantly, there is a lot more work that needs to be done.
Many facets of the antimicrobial mechanisms of LDMs remain unclear, and the library of prospective materials should be expanded. Further, the clinical and commercial applications of these materials remain under researched.
Such areas of research need to be further investigated for LDMs to be considered a serious alternative to current antimicrobial treatment strategies. It is hoped that this review will provide a foundation for informed decisions and design parameters of next-generation antimicrobial LDMs with antipathogenic activity and reveal an antipathogenic technology capable of combatting AMR pathogens.
Interagency Coordination Group on Antimicrobial Resistance. No time to wait: securing the future from drug-resistant infections. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, Report to the secretary-general of the United Nations. Google Scholar. Boyce, K. Insights into the global emergence of antifungal drug resistance.
Aust 40 , 87 Article Google Scholar. Cave, R. Whole genome sequencing revealed new molecular characteristics in multidrug resistant staphylococci recovered from high frequency touched surfaces in London.
Article ADS PubMed CAS PubMed Central Google Scholar. World Health Organization. Prioritization of pathogens to guide discovery, research and development of new antibiotics for drug-resistant bacterial infections, including tuberculosis World Health Organization, Humphreys, G.
in Bulletin of the World Health Organization Vol. Tan, L. et al. In situ disinfection through photoinspired radical oxygen species storage and thermal-triggered release from black phosphorous with strengthened chemical stability.
Small 14 , Article CAS Google Scholar. Richter, A. An environmentally benign antimicrobial nanoparticle based on a silver-infused lignin core. Article ADS CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Jenkins, J.
Antibacterial effects of nanopillar surfaces are mediated by cell impedance, penetration and induction of oxidative stress. Article ADS CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Christofferson, A. Conformationally tuned antibacterial oligomers target the peptidoglycan of Gram-positive bacteria.
Interface Sci. Article ADS CAS Google Scholar. Rai, M. Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of antimicrobials. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Durán, N. Silver nanoparticles: a new view on mechanistic aspects on antimicrobial activity.
Nanomedicine 12 , — Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar. Kim, E. Thorn-like TiO 2 nanoarrays with broad spectrum antimicrobial activity through physical puncture and photocatalytic action. Singh, R. Solid State Sci 89 , 1—14 Yu, X. Fluorine-free preparation of titanium carbide MXene quantum dots with high near-infrared photothermal performances for cancer therapy.
Nanoscale 9 , — Hebeish, A. TiO 2 nanowire and TiO 2 nanowire doped Ag-PVP nanocomposite for antimicrobial and self-cleaning cotton textile. Zhang, Y. Nanotoxicity of boron nitride nanosheet to bacterial membranes. Langmuir 35 , — Ahmed, T. Multifunctional optoelectronics via harnessing defects in layered black phosphorus.
Jiang, X. Stable one-dimensional single crystalline black phosphorus nanowires for gas sensing. ACS Appl. Nano Mater. Ahir, M. Tailored-CuO-nanowire decorated with folic acid mediated coupling of the mitochondrial-ROS generation and miRPTEN axis in furnishing potent anti-cancer activity in human triple negative breast carcinoma cells.
Biomaterials 76 , — Lu, T. Hexagonal boron nitride nanoplates as emerging biological nanovectors and their potential applications in biomedicine. B 4 , — Zhang, L. Interfaces 11 , — Elbourne, A. Significant enhancement of antimicrobial activity in oxygen-deficient zinc oxide nanowires.
Bio Mater. Alimohammadi, F. Antimicrobial properties of 2D MnO 2 and MoS 2 nanomaterials vertically aligned on graphene materials and Ti 3 C 2 MXene.
Langmuir 34 , — Arabi Shamsabadi, A. Antimicrobial mode-of-action of colloidal Ti 3 C 2 T x MXene nanosheets. ACS Sustain. Sun, Z. New solvent-stabilized few-layer black phosphorus for antibacterial applications. Nanoscale 10 , — Tripathy, A. flexible antibacterial surface reduces the viability of drug-resistant nosocomial pathogens.
Azzam, A. Antibacterial activity of magnesium oxide nano-hexagonal sheets for wastewater remediation. Energy 38 , S—S Zou, X. Mechanisms of the antimicrobial activities of graphene materials. He, X. Haloperoxidase mimicry by CeO 2—x nanorods of different aspect ratios for antibacterial performance.
Hwang, G. Photobactericidal activity activated by thiolated gold nanoclusters at low flux levels of white light. Mir, I.
Bandgap tunable AgInS based quantum dots for high contrast cell imaging with enhanced photodynamic and antifungal applications.
Liu, J. One-step hydrothermal synthesis of photoluminescent carbon nanodots with selective antibacterial activity against. Porphyromonas gingivalis. Jung, J. Defect engineering route to boron nitride quantum dots and edge-hydroxylated functionalization for bio-imaging. RSC Adv. Tang, X. A nanohybrid composed of MoS 2 quantum dots and MnO 2 nanosheets with dual-emission and peroxidase mimicking properties for use in ratiometric fluorometric detection and cellular imaging of glutathione.
Acta , Aunins, T. Isolating the Escherichia coli transcriptomic response to superoxide generation from cadmium chalcogenide quantum dots. ACS Biomater. Xu, Y. Titania nanowires functionalized polyester fabrics with enhanced photocatalytic and antibacterial performances.
Zhu, Y. De Cesare, F. A study on the dependence of bacteria adhesion on the polymer nanofibre diameter. Nano 6 , — Multifunctional CuO nanowire mesh for highly efficient solar evaporation and water purification. Ezhilarasi, A. Green mediated NiO nano-rods using Phoenix dactylifera dates extract for biomedical and environmental applications.
Li, X. Surface treatments on titanium implants via nanostructured ceria for antibacterial and anti-inflammatory capabilities. Acta Biomater 94 , — Pardo, M. Low cytotoxicity of inorganic nanotubes and fullerene-like nanostructures in human bronchial epithelial cells: relation to inflammatory gene induction and antioxidant response.
Wang, K. Fabrication and thermal stability of two-dimensional carbide Ti 3 C 2 nanosheets. Khan, H. Liquid metal-based synthesis of high performance monolayer SnS piezoelectric nanogenerators. Li, Z. Synergistic antibacterial activity of black phosphorus nanosheets modified with titanium aminobenzenesulfanato complexes.
Zhu, C. Pandit, S. High antibacterial activity of functionalized chemically exfoliated MoS 2. Interfaces 8 , — Cheng, P. ChemSusChem 12 , — Kaur, J. Biological interactions of biocompatible and water-dispersed MoS 2 nanosheets with bacteria and human cells. Rasool, K. Antibacterial activity of Ti 3 C 2 T x MXene.
ACS Nano 10 , — Dallavalle, M. Graphene can wreak havoc with cell membranes. Interfaces 7 , — Mejías Carpio, I.
Toxicity of a polymer—graphene oxide composite against bacterial planktonic cells, biofilms, and mammalian cells. Nanoscale 4 , — Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar. Mangadlao, J. On the antibacterial mechanism of graphene oxide GO Langmuir—Blodgett films.
Li, J. Antibacterial activity of large-area monolayer graphene film manipulated by charge transfer. Article PubMed CAS PubMed Central Google Scholar. Tsao, N. In vitro action of carboxyfullerene. Chen, H. Broad-spectrum antibacterial activity of carbon nanotubes to human gut bacteria.
Small 9 , — Akasaka, T. Capture of bacteria by flexible carbon nanotubes. Acta Biomater 5 , — Liu, S. ACS Nano 3 , — Wang, J. Cellular entry of graphene nanosheets: the role of thickness, oxidation and surface adsorption. RSC Adv 3 , — Yi, X. Cell interaction with graphene microsheets: near-orthogonal cutting versus parallel attachment.
Nanoscale 7 , — Titov, A. ACS Nano 4 , — Tu, Y. Destructive extraction of phospholipids from Escherichia coli membranes by graphene nanosheets. Wu, R. Membrane destruction and phospholipid extraction by using two-dimensional MoS 2 nanosheets. Jiang, W. Effects of charge and surface defects of multi-walled carbon nanotubes on the disruption of model cell membranes.
Total Environ. Fang, F. Antimicrobial actions of reactive oxygen species. mBio 2 , e— Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar. Zheng, K. Antimicrobial gold nanoclusters.
ACS Nano 11 , — Yang, X. Antibacterial activity of two-dimensional MoS 2 sheets. Nanoscale 6 , — Ristic, B. Photodynamic antibacterial effect of graphene quantum dots.
Biomaterials 35 , — Gui, R. Black phosphorus quantum dots: synthesis, properties, functionalized modification and applications. Ouyang, J.
A Black phosphorus based synergistic antibacterial platform against drug resistant bacteria. B 6 , — Kang, S. Antibacterial effects of carbon nanotubes: size does matter!
Langmuir 24 , — Courtney, C. Photoexcited quantum dots for killing multidrug-resistant bacteria. Wang, D. Iron oxide nanowire-based filter for inactivation of airborne bacteria.
Tian, X. Photogenerated charge carriers in molybdenum disulfide quantum dots with enhanced antibacterial activity. Qiao, Y. Laser-activatable CuS nanodots to treat multidrug-resistant bacteria and release copper ion to accelerate healing of infected chronic nonhealing wounds. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar.
Hu, L. Venkateswarlu, S. Actuators B , — Superoxide anion: critical source of high performance antibacterial activity in Co-Doped ZnO QDs. ZnO quantum dots modified bioactive glass nanoparticles with pH-sensitive release of Zn ions, fluorescence, antibacterial and osteogenic properties.
Huang, L. Generation of vanadium oxide quantum dots with distinct fluorescence and antibacterial activity via a room-temperature agitation strategy. ChemNanoMat 4 , — Ma, W. Bienzymatic synergism of vanadium oxide nanodots to efficiently eradicate drug-resistant bacteria during wound healing in vivo.
Peng, D. Facile and green approach to the synthesis of boron nitride quantum dots for 2,4,6-trinitrophenol sensing. Interfaces 10 , — Xue, Q. Photoluminescent Ti 3 C 2 MXene quantum dots for multicolor cellular imaging. Mohid, S. Application of tungsten disulfide quantum dot-conjugated antimicrobial peptides in bio-imaging and antimicrobial therapy.
B , — Hameed, A. In vitro antibacterial activity of ZnO and Nd doped ZnO nanoparticles against ESBL producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae.
Karim, M. Visible-light-triggered reactive-oxygen-species-mediated antibacterial activity of peroxidase-mimic CuO nanorods. Podder, S.
Effect of morphology and concentration on crossover between antioxidant and pro-oxidant activity of MgO nanostructures. Yousefi, A. Maghemite nanorods and nanospheres: synthesis and comparative physical and biological properties.
BioNanoScience 8 , 95— Bai, X. Photocatalytic activity enhanced via g-C 3 N 4 nanoplates to nanorods. C , — Maria Nithya, J. Aqueous dispersion of polymer coated boron nitride nanotubes and their antibacterial and cytotoxicity studies. RSC Adv 4 , — Zhang, X. General construction of molybdenum-based nanowire arrays for pH-universal hydrogen evolution electrocatalysis.
Ajori, S. The mechanical properties and structural instability of single- and double-walled boron-nitride nanotubes functionalized with 2-methoxy-N,N-dimethylethanamine MDE using molecular dynamics simulations.
D 73 , Watts, M. Production of phosphorene nanoribbons. Nature , — Iqbal, T. Facile synthesis of ZnO nanosheets: structural, antibacterial and photocatalytic studies.
Liang, Y. Injectable antimicrobial conductive hydrogels for wound disinfection and infectious wound healing. Biomacromolecules 21 , — Prasad, K. Synergic bactericidal effects of reduced graphene oxide and silver nanoparticles against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Barbolina, I. Purity of graphene oxide determines its antibacterial activity. Thurston, J. Urea-derived graphitic carbon nitride u-g-C 3 N 4 films with highly enhanced antimicrobial and sporicidal activity. Cui, H. Stimulating antibacterial activities of graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets with plasma treatment.
Nanoscale 11 , — Fakhri, A. CAS Google Scholar. Rajivgandhi, G. Antibiofilm activity of zinc oxide nanosheets ZnO NSs using Nocardiopsis sp. GRG1 KT against MDR strains of gram negative Proteus mirabilis and Escherichia coli. The presence of harmful microorganisms in the area of human health has become a great concern, due to the variety of infections and diseases.
Rapid antibiotic resistance further worsens the situation. have a short duration of action and environmental toxicity issues. Thus, there is a need for effective and long-term antibacterial and biofilm-preventing materials to meet the demands in biomedicine.
Biofilms are a bacterial defense mechanism that protect bacteria from being washed away and make bacteria less susceptible or ineffective towards toxins. Biomedical devices are commonly used in hospitals as part of medical practice.
They can be a source of microbial infections via contact with body fluids and tissues and due to openings in protective barriers, such as the skin, leading to nosocomial or hospital-acquired infections. Out of million intravascular devices used annually in the USA, — result in nosocomial bloodstream infections.
So prevention of these infections becomes necessary to reduce patient suffering and huge associated medical costs. Antimicrobial polymers have wide applications in the biomedical field, especially when they are in direct contact with the human body.
They should possess certain requirements and meet regulations for safe use within the body. Firstly, they should be biocompatible, unreactive to the body with good stability and resistance to bodily fluids. Moreover, as previously mentioned, higher content of microbes in biofilms can result in serious infections and health issues.
Therefore, selecting appropriate polymers against microbes is essential for biomedical applications. However, the purpose of the chapter is to provide a handy overall vision of the field of antimicrobial materials. Antimicrobial polymers have emerged as promising candidates against microbial contamination owing to their properties.
Their versatile macromolecular chemistry facilitates the tailoring of polymer physicochemical properties to be used for various applications in the biomedical field. In nature, most materials possess antimicrobial ability. Materials that exhibit antimicrobial action without any modification are known as intrinsic antimicrobial materials.
Chitosan was discovered by Rouget in and is the most widely used polymer in biomedicine, with its broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, first proposed by Allan and Hadwinger. Its antimicrobial activity can be explained by two main mechanisms. Firstly, positively charged chitosan can interact with negatively charged microbial cell surfaces and will either prevent the transport of essential materials into cells or result in leakage of cellular contents.
In the second mechanism, chitosan binds with cellular DNA via protonated amine moieties and results in microbial RNA synthesis inhibition. Chitosan acts on various types of bacteria and fungi Table 1.
They showed the optimum antimicrobial activity at 5. In addition, hydrophilicity and their structural similarity to glycosaminoglycans make them versatile materials for tissue engineering.
Heparin, a highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan, is widely applicable in the field of hemocompatible biomaterials. However, due to heparin binding with calcium, it seems likely that it acts by chelation of cations that are essential for bacterial growth. In a randomized pilot study, 20 ureteral stents with and without heparin coating were inserted into obstructed ureters for 2—6 weeks and evaluated for encrustation and biofilm formation.
There was a significant decrease in catheter-related infections with heparinized central venous catheters CVCs and dialysis catheters that was confirmed by randomized study of heparin-coated and uncoated non-tunnelled CVCs inserted in patients as well as in a retrospective study of coated and uncoated tunnelled dialysis catheters.
ε-Polylysine ε-PL is a hydrophilic linear polyamide composed of 25—30 residues of l- lysine with ε-amino and α-carboxyl group linkage. In addition, it is adsorbed electrostatically to bacterial cell surfaces that have negatively charged lipopolysaccharide, causing the stripping of their outer membrane.
This eventually leads to abnormal cytoplasmic distribution and cell death. Naturally available ε-PL is edible, biodegradable, non-toxic and soluble in water.
ε-PL derivatives can be used as emulsifiers, drug carriers, biodegradable fibers, highly water-absorbable hydrogels, biochip coatings, etc. ε-PL and polycaprolactone PCL copolymer showed a broad-spectrum antibacterial action towards Escherichia coli , Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis.
Most bacterial cells are negatively charged, hence most antimicrobial polymers are positively charged to drive their interaction. In addition, the ones with quaternary ammonium moieties are mostly explored as polymeric biocides. Polycationic biocides act by destructive interaction with the bacterial cell wall.
The antifungal activity may also involve the impediment of formation of hyphae. Cationic polymers with quaternary ammonium groups and aromatic or heterocyclic rings are synthesized from polystyrene and polyvinylpyridine.
Imidazole derivatives offer good chemical stability, with resistance to hydrogenation, and undergo numerous substitution reactions for providing functional derivatives. Random and block copolymers containing quaternized poly 4-vinylpyridine P4VP and polystyrene showed good antibacterial action.
P4VP possesses reactive pyridine groups that form pyridinium-type antimicrobial polymers. Due to increased surface wettability, the antibacterial property of these polymers was found to be 20 times higher than the quaternized homopolymer, without causing any hemolysis.
In general, the antifungal mechanism of action of gemini QACs involves lysis of cell membrane and cell organelles. Gemini QACs contain two pyridinium residues [3,3- 2,7-dioxaoctane bis 1-decylpyridinium bromide ] per molecule, that cause respiration inhibition and cytoplasmic leakage of adenosine triphosphate as well as magnesium and potassium ions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
However, it is not effective against small, non-enveloped viruses such as picorna viruses. Among cationic synthetic polymers, polyacrylamides and polyacrylates with tertiary or quaternary amine groups are the most investigated antimicrobial polymers due to their wide versatility and ease of synthesis.
Physicochemical properties and antimicrobial activity can be properly modulated by varying the type of monomers, type of counter ion of charged groups, polymer amphiphilicity and alkyl chain length attached to the cationic groups.
Methacrylate polymers with tertiary butylamine groups are considered to be potent antimicrobials. and fungus Trichophyton rubrum. These polymers showed prominent antimicrobial properties against Gram-negative bacteria and fungi at 24 h contact time. Methacrylamides with alkyl pyridinium pendant groups and temperature-responsive N -isopropylacrylamides were also synthesized as biocides.
In , Wichterle and Lim first described the use of polyhydroxyethylmethacrylate PHEMA for contact lens applications. By contrast, hydrophobic polymers such as poly methyl methacrylate PMMA and poly hexa-fluoroisopropyl methacrylate are widely used for hard contact lenses.
Porphyrin-crosslinked poly 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate- co -methyl methacrylate copolymers were used for preventing endophthalmitis. Polysiloxanes with quaternary ammonium and imidazolium groups, as well as polysilsesquioxanes with quaternary ammonium groups, have activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Polysiloxane polymers with pendant quaternary ammonium salt QAS groups show antibacterial action via interaction with bacterial membranes. Polysiloxanes with quaternary ammonium groups are gaining interest due to high flexibility of polymer chains that makes the contact of microbe and polymer easier.
Their hydrophilic inorganic and hydrophobic organic groups augment the quaternary moiety in the vicinity of the microbial cell wall. Polysiloxanes with N , N -dialkylimidazolium salt showed higher antibacterial power. Imidazolium-substituted polysiloxane has higher thermal stability compared to alkyl ammonium functionalized polymers.
PDMS with QAS moieties will facilitate contact-killing antimicrobial properties of the materials. Polyionenes are polymer electrolytes with quaternized nitrogens in the polymer backbone.
Ionenes with low charge density and longer lipophilic chains exhibit effective biocidal activity against yeast, indicating that their hydrophobicity is the predominant factor for cell wall disruption. Polyoxazolines are pseudopeptides obtained by ring-opening reactions. Due to lower toxicity and functional versatility they are known as biocide end-functionalized polymers.
Polyoxazolines represent a valuable type of macromolecules and are mainly investigated in the biomedical field due to their biocompatibility, blood clearance and protein adsorption. A series of polymethyloxazolines with different satellite groups including hydroxyl-, primary amine- and double bond-containing groups were synthesized.
It was found that the functional satellite groups greatly controlled the minimum inhibitory concentration MIC towards Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli at a range of 10— ppm. Branched polyethylene imine PEI in its quaternized form adsorbs on the bacterial cell membrane and causes cell death by disrupting the cell membrane and releasing the intracellular contents, thereby showing outstanding antibacterial activity.
This led to the emergence of dendrimers with compact structure, monodisperse molecular weights and availability of many end groups. Their biocidal properties depend on dendrimer size, hydrophobic chain length, surface porosity and counter anions.
Poly propyleneimine and poly amidoamine PAMAM dendrimers are widely used in drug delivery and gene therapy. Quaternary dendrimer-based copolymers showed antimicrobial action based on the amount of quaternary ammonium moieties and surface porosity.
Polyguanidines and polybiguanides possess high water solubility, a broad antimicrobial spectrum and non-toxicity, thereby attracting considerable attention as antimicrobial compounds. In the s, the first patent for oligoguanidine compounds as antibacterial agents was filed.
It has biguanidine units linked with hexamethylene hydrocarbon chains, thereby providing an amphipathic structure. It binds with lipid membranes, causing increased membrane fluidity and permeability and subsequent microbial death. It has also been reported to bind bacterial DNA, altering the transcription process and causing lethal damage to DNA.
Antimicrobial peptides AMPs are the main components of host defense against various infections; they display remarkable activity against bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites.
They kill bacteria by different mechanisms such as cell membrane disruption, interference with metabolism and targeting cytoplasmic components.
However, their utility has been hindered due to high manufacturing costs, susceptibility to proteolysis and poor pharmacokinetic profile. All these reasons have led to an increase in research interest in synthesizing AMPs. AMPs can serve as promising candidates for new-generation antimicrobials and are of great interest due to a low risk of bacterial resistance, broader spectra of action, target specificity, high efficacy and synergistic action with classical antibiotics.
Solid-phase synthesis and solution coupling are the common methods to prepare AMPs. Analogs of idolidicin were synthesized to give less toxic polymers with higher antimicrobial properties.
Arylamide and phenylene ethynylene oligomers and polymers were made by simple and inexpensive synthetic methods. Ilker et al. found that upon increasing the amine groups on such polymers, hemolytic activity decreased significantly.
Antifungal peptides target fungal cell walls via peptide binding to chitin. Moreover, they show lethal effects by disrupting membrane integrity, promoting membrane fluidity or by creating pores. Polymers containing fluorine are most attractive, due to their unique properties such as oil and water repellence due to lower polarizability and high electronegativity of fluorine atoms; higher chemical, thermal and weather resistance; lower dielectric constant and lower surface energy.
It was found to be more prominent in inhibiting microbial growth due to high fluorine content. synthesized a polymer with quinolone and a fluorine atom that proved its capacity to kill bacteria.
The results showed their potent antimicrobial activity after 1 h of contact time. Kugel et al. modified triclosan with an acrylate functionality followed by copolymerisation with different compositions of ethyl and butyl acrylates.
Results showed that antimicrobial properties improved upon increasing triclosan groups without any leaching of triclosan. N -Halamines are formed by halogenation of amide, imide or amine groups by covalent bonding. They are the most promising candidates as antimicrobials, due to their fast and total killing action against various microbes without any environmental concerns and long-term stability, and it is highly unlikely that microbes will establish resistance to them.
Poly 4-vinylphenol PVPh was modified by sulfonation followed by electrospinning and MIC values were measured against a variety of bacteria, where modified polymers exhibited greater antimicrobial action at lower concentration than unmodified PVPh.
The resulting antimicrobial activity suggested that they are highly effective with 7-log reduction in 10 min in case of hydroxymethyl hydantoin functional group incorporation. Cationic polymers that are hydrophobic can be used as antimicrobial coating materials and they are capable in inhibiting bacteria and human-pathogenic fungi.
In fungal cells, cationic amphipathic peptides such as magainin cause membrane lysis and interfere with the DNA integrity of fungi cells. Polyethylene glycol-grafted polystyrene beads were covalently linked to AMPs with specific sequences.
The results showed that their antimicrobial action was dependent on exposure time and concentration of modified polystyrene.
To infer antimicrobial activity, natural polymers can be grafted to synthetic polymers. Yang et al. grafted chitosan onto polypropylene modified with acrylic acid and found that with increasing acrylic acid grafting, cell viability decreased. Polymeric nanoparticles can kill microbes by contact-killing cationic surfaces quaternary ammonium compounds, quaternary phosphoniums or alkyl pyridiniums or by releasing antimicrobial agents and antimicrobial peptides.
The antibacterial activity of polycations depends on the ability of multiple charges to attach and interact with the bacterial cell wall. Lu et al. incorporated triclosan, a widely used antimicrobial, into cyclodextrin and subsequently into PCL or nylon films. By this modification, the antimicrobial agent was protected against higher temperatures during processing.
Diuron or 3- 3,4-dichlorophenyl -1,1-dimethylurea was embedded in poly ester anhydride composed of sebacic acid, ricinoleic acid, terephthalic acid and isophthalic acid, by which release of the compound was observed for about 25 days. Polymers can be mixed with natural or synthetic antimicrobial polymers.
Data from antibacterial assays demonstrated that the antibacterial properties were retained up to 3 months with complete growth inhibition of Enerococcus faecalis , Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus mutans and a reduced growth of Staphylococcus epidermis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
blended PCL with poly N -vinylpyrrolidone -iodine which imparted antibacterial properties to the biomaterials without altering mechanical or rheological properties. Moreover, PCL degradation also favored the anti-adherence of Escherichia coli. Organic antibacterials are usually less stable at higher temperatures when compared to inorganic materials, which poses difficulties in designing materials that are stable and able to withstand harsh processing conditions.
In order to overcome these problems, inorganic nanosized materials are often used as antimicrobial materials. A list of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles and their antimicrobial action is presented in Table 1. The antimicrobial mode of action of metal oxide nanoparticles is explained in Figure 1.
Antimicrobial activity of metal oxide nanoparticles. NPs: nanoparticles; MRSA: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ; MRSE: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis ; MSSA: methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus ; PEI: polyethyleneimine.
Mechanism of antimicrobial action by metal oxide nanoparticles MO-NPs : MO-NPs cause cell membrane damage by electrostatic interaction. Their accumulation dissipates the proton motive force, disrupting the chemiosmosis process, thereby causing proton leakage.
They induce reactive oxygen species generation which damages organic biomolecules carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids finally causing microbial death. They bind with mesosomes and alter cellular respiration, cell division and the DNA replication process.
Dephosphorylation of phosphotyrosine residues inhibits signal transduction and ultimately obstructs bacterial growth. Protein carbonylation leads to loss of catalytic activity of enzymes, ultimately triggering protein degradation.
Approaches for surface modification in medical devices to impart antimicrobial properties. Polymer coating is preferable for controlled drug release of organic or inorganic antimicrobial compounds, whereas in inorganic coatings both antimicrobial compound release and intrinsic antibacterial activity are possible.
Bioplastics are biopolymers obtained from proteins and are widely explored for their uses in medicine. They exhibit antimicrobial properties by creating anti-adhesive surfaces, disrupting cell-to-cell communication or leading to cell membrane lysis, thereby killing bacteria.
Albumin shows antimicrobial activity by its enzyme lysozyme, which causes cell wall lysis. Albumin from hen egg whites is of particular interest in medical device fabrication due to its inherent antibacterial nature. Currently, silver-based nanoengineered materials are widely applicable in plastic commodities because of their antimicrobial abilities.
In medicine and for food safety, titanium-, copper- and zinc-based nanostructures also show promising antimicrobial effects. synthesized plasticized chitosan-based polymers containing good antibacterial properties and mechanical strength with easy scale-up.
developed a polyethylene composite containing silver microparticles. Hydroxyapatite is a biocompatible and bioactive material in common use as an implant in bone tissue regeneration and as a drug carrier in drug and gene delivery systems.
Due to its structural flexibility, various metal ions can be substituted in order to improve solubility, antibacterial activity and mechanical strength for bone implantation. Hydroxyapatite doped with silver, copper oxide and zinc oxide can be used to improve antibacterial properties.
An ideal antimicrobial polymer should have following characteristics: 7. Molecular weight has an important role in determining antimicrobial activity. synthesized polypropylenimine dendrimers functionalized with quaternary ammonium groups and found that the antimicrobial properties have parabolic dependence on molecular weight.
Counter ion effect on antimicrobial properties is not clearly known, except where they change or alter the solubility of host polymers. Kanazawa et al. Counter ions with strong binding affinity towards quaternary compounds show lower antibacterial action because of slow and reduced release of free ions in the medium.
Usually, a positive charge density can impart better polymeric electrostatic interaction with negatively charged bacterial cell walls. For chitosan, with increasing degrees of deacetylation, the charge density increase enhances the electrostatic interaction of the polymer and thus antimicrobial property.
Higher charge density groups were incorporated in chitosan to form guanidinylated chitosan and asparagine N -conjugated chitosan oligosaccharide, which resulted in high antimicrobial action, whereas N -carboxyethyl chitosan did not show any antimicrobial action due to a lack of free amino groups.
Spacer length affects the interaction of antimicrobial agents with the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane due to changes in charge density and conformation of the polymer.
Poly trialkyl vinyl benzyl ammonium chloride with the longest carbon chain C 12 showed higher antimicrobial activity. The pH effect can be seen mostly in amphoteric polymers and chitosan.
At acidic pH, chitosan exhibits maximum antimicrobial activity because of polycation formation and better solubility. However, at basic pH, there are no reports of its antimicrobial effect. Hydrophilic nature is considered an important prerequisite for any antimicrobial agent to show activity.
Tailoring of hydrophobic group content and molecular weight in amphiphilic polymethacrylate derivatives showed improvements in antimicrobial activity. Due to the high number of antibiotics in clinical microbiology, sensitivity testing becomes difficult.
However, there are two standard testing methods: the serial dilution test and the disc test, by which sensitivity of bacteria to antibiotics can be tested in vitro. Antibiotic drug resistance can also be monitored by MIC.
No standard method is advocated in the literature to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of industrial products and medical devices.
Moreover, the researchers modify the testing conditions as per their experimental design. performed a test by the measurement of the zone of bacterial growth inhibition, with the testing materials placed on bacteria-inoculated agar plates, through the use of a ruler on the underside of the petri dish.
Clinical trials for antimicrobial polymers are described in Table 1. Clinical trials for antimicrobial polymers. In this chapter, a concise overview on the research and development of novel antimicrobials has been provided.
In order to synthesize and incorporate antimicrobial substances in biomaterials, various methods and recent technologies have been stimulated by the need to overcome antibiotic resistance and the risk of infections associated with the clinical use of medical devices. To obtain materials and products with improved quality and safety, industrial and academic research should come on board to develop innocuous materials that are environmentally friendly and reusable, with a broad range of potent, long-lasting and antimicrobial properties.
Sign In or Create an Account. Search Dropdown Menu. header search search input Search input auto suggest.
Log in. Toggle Menu Menu Browse books Series Collections For authors and editors About Our books Catalogues and flyers Advance book information Delivery and returns Permissions information FAQ. Skip Nav Destination Close navigation menu.
Biomaterials Science Series. Antimicrobial Materials for Biomedical Applications. Edited by. Abraham J Domb ; Abraham J Domb. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.
This Site. Google Scholar. Konda Reddy Kunduru ; Konda Reddy Kunduru. Shady Farah Shady Farah. Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Israel. Special Collection: ebook collection.
Series: Biomaterials Science Series. Publication date:. Chapter Contents. Chapter Navigation. Book Chapter. Shaheen Mahira Shaheen Mahira. Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research NIPER. Anjali Jain Anjali Jain.
Wahid Khan Wahid Khan. Abraham J. Domb Abraham J. School of Pharmacy-Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Split view Open the Chapter PDF for in another window ePub.
Get permissions. Cite Icon Cite. toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest. Table 1. Minimum inhibitory concentration ppm. View Large. Antimicrobial peptide. Chemical ring.
Intervention against pathogenic bacteria using natural propreties material has a long history. Some propertues Antibacterial material properties Anti-inflammatory remedies for mental clarity, such as hemp, are regarded materkal possess antibacterial activity against a wide range of propfrties bacteria. Mqterial Energy metabolism and dietary fiber can be explored if they are incorporated in polymer composites. This review aims to compile the relevant investigations on antibacterial activity of hemp and other fibre plants such as jute, flax, kenaf, sisal, and bamboo. The antibacterial character might be contributed from cannabinoids, alkaloids, other bioactive compounds, or phenolic compounds of lignin. This review is intended to encourage utilization of hemp and other natural fibre plants in value-added diversified products.
0 thoughts on “Antibacterial material properties”