Cognitive enhancement strategies -
Music making as a tool for promoting brain plasticity across the life span. Wykes T, Reeder C, Corner J, et al.
The effects of neurocognitive remediation on executive processing in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull. Gagnon G, Schneider C, Grondin S, Blanchet S.
Enhancement of episodic memory in young and healthy adults: a paired-pulse TMS study on encoding and retrieval performance. Neurosci Lett. Boggio PS, Fregni F, Bermpohl F, et al. Mov Disord. Holtzheimer PE, McDonald WM, Mufti M, et al.
Accelerated repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Depress Anxiety. Whetstine LM. Cognitive enhancement: treating or cheating?
Semin Pediatr Neurol. Psychotherapy vs Pharmacotherapy for Depression in Heart Failure. Here's to a Psychedelic Revolution.
New Conference Series Focuses on Improving Mental Health Care for Black Youth. How to Talk to Teenagers About Substance Use. Bipolar Disorder Research Roundup: February 9, Digital Mental Health Interventions for Eating Disorders Among Adolescents.
Around the Practice. Between the Lines. Expert Perspectives. Case-Based Psych Perspectives. Medical World News. Payer-Provider Perspective. Psychiatric Times. All Publications. Partner Perspectives. Job Board. Clinical Scales. Conference Coverage.
Conference Listing. Interactive Tools. Special Reports. Print Subscription. Expert Perspectives on the Unmet Needs in the Management of Major Depressive Disorder Novel Delivery Systems Utilized in the Treatment of Adult ADHD Expert Perspectives on the Clinical Management of Bipolar 1 Disorder Major Depressive Disorder.
Couch In Crisis Early Career Psychiatry History of Psychiatry Residents Corner. Cultural Corner. Film and Book Reviews Poetry Writers Contest.
Psychiatric Practice. Burnout Careers Coding Guidelines Risk Management Telepsychiatry. Climate Change Critical Conversations in Psychiatry Portraits Psychiatric Views on the Daily News Tales From the Clinic: The Art of Psychiatry Tales from the New Asylum.
Media Around the Practice. Publications Psychiatric Times. Resources Clinical Scales. Subscribe Print Subscription. Bipolar Disorder. Bipolar I Disorder. Case Discussions. Compulsive Disorders. Cultural Psychiatry. Digital Psychiatry.
Digital Therapeutics. Eating Disorders. Forensic Psychiatry. Impulse Control Disorder. Integrative Psychiatry. International Overdose Awareness. Major Depressive Disorder. Mental Health Systems. Mood Disorders. Personality Disorders. Psychiatric Emergencies. Sleep Disorders.
Special Populations. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. To help children continue with their schooling, there has been a sudden and unprecedented shift to online education. The government has launched several e-platforms to assist students and teachers until schools reopen, and at an institutional level, schools have developed and are delivering curriculum online.
Image courtesy of Pixabay One can see that online education has the potential to reach children from disadvantaged backgrounds who may not otherwise have access to good schools and resources to optimize their cognitive development. From within their homes, these children could access education on par with children from far more privileged backgrounds, thereby bridging this critical gap in access to quality education.
One could even go as far as to say the forced shift to online education as a result of the COVID pandemic is actually a silver lining. However, this would be oversimplifying the solution for such a complex challenge.
Societal disparities in access to the internet and affordability of technology remain a major barrier in several parts of the country that cannot be ignored. Further, even if technology is made more accessible and affordable, how do parents of children from disadvantaged backgrounds, who themselves may not be educated or comfortable with technology, help their children navigate online education?
The long term social and ethical implications of a shift to online education are not clearly known. Therefore, although online education may have the potential to reach children from disadvantaged backgrounds, it remains to be seen whether online education would actually reduce or widen the gaps of cognitive, social, and emotional development that education strives to fill.
Despite these questions, our research in India has so far suggested that parents across socioeconomic strata appear to be reticent for quick fix solutions involving pharmacological approaches and supplements for cognitive enhancement that come with concerns about safety and potential side effects.
Our research instead points towards the need to invest in traditional and acceptable approaches, such as improving access to quality education in LMIC contexts. Ironically, the current pandemic may be providing us with a unique impetus to improve the quality and universal access to online education — an opportunity that should not be missed.
Butcher, J. Cognitive enhancement raises ethical concerns. Academics urge pre-emptive debate on neurotechnologies. Lancet , , Farah, M. Childhood poverty: Specific associations with neurocognitive development. Keshavan, M. Cognitive training in mental disorders: Update and future directions.
American Journal of Psychiatry , 5 , Neuroscience of childhood poverty: Evidence of impacts and mechanisms as vehicles of dialog with ethics. Frontiers in Psychology , 8 JAN , Because upregulating hippocampal function is thought to result from encoding complex information into LTM 35 , 37 , a principal challenge is presenting OA with information that is both novel and captivating enough to hold their deep engagement for an extended intervention; for example, an adaptive environment that is customized to each individual.
Modern technology now enables more elaborate and immersive sensory presentations and manipulation of a wider range of stimuli in cognitive interventions, thus leading to more engaging and personalized learning experiences. Studies have found that head-mounted-display virtual reality HMD VR drives greater engagement and increased performance relative to the same task presented on a flat-screen-monitor 40 , In terms of customizing the intervention environment, the use of HMD VR tools enables: 1 flexible control of the novelty of rich visual stimuli and game-play mechanics, which underpins development of the most intriguing learning experiences, and 2 increasing the engagement of participants in order to sustain their attentiveness and motivation for long, repeated training sessions that are necessary to achieve broader improvements in high-fidelity LTM.
As such, OA can encounter a dynamic and personalized learning challenge that is, environmental enrichment with interventions using HMD VR. Further, several studies have shown that OA are often enthusiastic about using VR platforms, and research has shown that it is possible to design VR experiences that are accessible to OA 43 ; therefore, getting OA to use VR at home is highly feasible To capitalize on these technological advantages, the Labyrinth intervention advances beyond flat-screen video games to stimulate learning in new spatial environments 45 by incorporating HMD VR and motion-capture sensors in a spatial wayfinding game Specifically, task performance in 3D VR uses binocular vision, which arises from a complex network of dorsal occipital areas and feeds a more intricate representation of the environment forward to enhance spatial-memory encoding The results from an intervention trial of Labyrinth showed that healthy OA increased their spatial wayfinding abilities in the game, but more importantly, these gains generalized to improved high-fidelity LTM performance on an unpracticed memory test Notably, post-training memory performance in OA who engaged with Labyrinth reached levels comparable to baseline high-fidelity LTM in younger adults.
Unlike the ambiguity surrounding the potential benefits of cognitive training for OA, the benefits of physical-fitness interventions have been well established in both healthy and cognitively impaired individuals 47 , 48 , Mechanistically, physical-fitness interventions have been shown to increase production of proteins such as BDNF, IGF-1, and VEGF 50 , 51 , which modulate neurogenesis 52 , 53 and subsequently facilitate enhanced brain functions 54 , 55 through heightened brain network connectivity discussed more below.
Similarly, cognitive training has been shown to lead to increased neuronal plasticity at the cellular for example, BDNF expression 56 , 57 and network for example, functional connectivity 24 , 58 levels. New technologies, such as motion-capture sensors and VR, hold great promise for increasing engagement and enjoyment of physical-fitness training in OA Interestingly, results from animal studies have shown that linking physical and cognitive challenges can lead to synergistic enhancement of cognitive processes Although several studies 61 , 62 have sought to evaluate combined cognitive- and physical-training programs to enhance cognition in OA, the conclusions from these studies have been largely inconclusive, possibly owing to intervention delivery limitations.
In some studies, participants alternated days devoted to each training modality and thus were not exposed to an integrated experience 61 , Other studies that attempted simultaneous physical and cognitive training inadvertently created an imbalanced training environment by failing to incorporate common goals that united the components 63 , Although these findings have not conclusively demonstrated synergistic effects, we still believe that such approaches are compelling options to maintain both cognitive and physical health in aging 65 and provide a time- and resource-efficient means of targeting multiple risk factors in OA Our perspective is that, to achieve synergistic effects, a combined cognitive and physical challenge should be delivered in an integrated manner without trade-offs across domains, and that this can be obtained by simultaneously engaging multiple closed-loop systems across areas to achieve a common outcome from a single intervention.
This approach is currently being tested in clinical trials. There is growing interest in using various forms of meditation as therapeutic interventions to enhance attention 67 and combat cognitive decline in OA In addition to leading to improvements in cognition 69 , meditation and mindfulness practices have been studied as potential therapies for loneliness 70 , depression 71 , impulse control 72 , and chronic pain management 73 in OA.
Long-term meditation has been found to mitigate signs of brain aging 74 , 75 and improve well-being in OA Moreover, these practices do not offer quantifiable metrics of success or performance feedback during the learning phases — factors that are important for maintaining engagement with an intervention Further, traditional meditation is difficult to personalize because it is not adaptive or tailored to individuals, making it overly challenging for some novices.
Although recent studies have tested the delivery of website-accessible 79 and mobile 80 meditation programs, these online practices tend to duplicate the procedures of traditional meditation and consequently have faced similar hurdles to implementation. In addition, while meditation apps on mobile devices have become increasingly ubiquitous 81 , studies to date have either failed to characterize their effects on cognition or have shown equivocal results An example of an approach to achieving a closed-loop digital meditation is MediTrain 83 , which was designed with the goal of improving focused, sustained attention.
This digital approach to meditation personalizes the experience to the real-time abilities of individuals, provides both punctuated and continuous feedback, and includes adaptivity that increases the challenge level as the user improves. Following several studies demonstrating a positive impact of MediTrain on attention in younger populations 83 , 84 , 85 , a large-scale, fully remote trial of this digital intervention is being conducted in OA using a mobile RCT platform Fig.
Interestingly, another modern, technology-enabled approach to meditation relies on neurofeedback from EEG signals recorded from a consumer device and has led to similar improvements in cognitive control These new technologically enabled types of meditation may open the door for personalization of treatments, with some forms for example, neurofeedback versus performance-based feedback working better for specific individuals.
First, recruitment is conducted entirely remotely through social-media outreach, online advertisements, agreements with senior living centers, and direct mail campaigns.
Next, OA are sent a link to visit a mobile RCT portal where they complete informed consent and eligibility forms on their computers or mobile devices.
They then complete baseline cognitive assessments, demographic questionnaires, and surveys of real-life behaviors and conditions, and those data are input into machine-learning algorithms that predict which digital intervention is most appropriate for each person, and randomization is done in a stratified manner.
Once assigned to an arm, OA complete the digital intervention at home while data are collected remotely. Finally, advanced device or cloud-based analytics allow for rapid analysis of results in real time, accelerating the pace of research and discovery. These results can then be interpreted by researchers or visualized and presented to the participants as a performance dashboard, enabling them to monitor their own progress.
The OA population is extremely heterogeneous Increasing age is associated with the risk of detrimental physiological or sensory changes, as well as increased risk of chronic diseases for example, diabetes, cancer, heart disease, and cognitive impairment.
At the same time, chronological age is not always a good predictor of functional capacity, with some individuals over the age of 80 continuing to work and travel, while other younger individuals are unable to.
This variability in older populations is often overlooked when developing cognitive therapeutics, thus limiting the potential efficacy of interventions in some populations. Further, within trials of cognitive interventions, there is often pronounced variability in treatment responses that is ignored when reporting group averages, suggesting the need for additional personalization tactics.
We propose that these differences represent meaningful heterogeneity, such that there is likely not a one-size-fits-all solution for cognitive enhancement in OA.
A critical step to developing personalized interventions is identification of biomarkers that predict intervention success for a particular individual 88 , Some of the most promising personalization results come from studies that have used advanced neuroimaging methods to uncover neural factors that predict treatment success in an individual.
Much of this work in OA has focused on metrics related to magnetic resonance imaging MRI , spanning individual brain regions to large-scale brain-network properties 89 , Although much of the work using structural brain region predictors for example, volume 91 , 92 , 93 and thickness 94 has been largely inconclusive, more recently one common organizing principle of functional brain networks — modularity — has emerged as a potential unifying predictor of outcomes across a variety of interventions Modularity may be a biomarker of cognitive plasticity that predicts treatment outcomes across interventions Although much of this work in OA has focused on MRI-related metrics, parallel findings in younger adults have identified electroencephalogram EEG -based markers that predict treatment outcomes Extending such EEG findings to OA will be an important next step as affordable, consumer-grade home EEG devices continue to increase in quality and ease of use, paving the way for at-home neural diagnostics that can be used to tailor intervention strategies or parameters to individuals.
Although it is clear that individual differences play an important role in intervention responsiveness 88 , 99 , there are several lines of future work that will translate our understanding of these differences to developing personalized interventions.
First, there is a need to better understand biomarkers of treatment outcomes. Second, it is likely that multiple biomarkers that span demographics, cognition, and neural profiles have interacting, and potentially additive, effects on predicting outcomes.
Large-sample RCTs that incorporate machine learning will be critical in developing multimodal models that elucidate these predictive effects.
Indeed, ongoing work is using an online citizen science approach to recruit tens of thousands of volunteers to validate and personalize cognitive enhancement technologies , and machine learning is now being used to optimize non-invasive brain-stimulation protocols for different individuals We anticipate a future of personalized digital therapeutics in which individuals are pre-assigned optimal training parameters, thus maximizing treatment outcomes for everyone.
An example of a technology-based, non-pharmacological strategy for enhancing cognition in aging that has benefited from a precision-medicine approach is non-invasive brain stimulation NIBS. Of particular interest is the coupling of NIBS with cognitive challenges; the hypothesis is that targeted neural networks are selectively activated by task engagement and then further modulated by brain stimulation, resulting in synergistic neuro-enhancing effects that drive greater cognitive improvement This raises the possibility that NIBS could be used to augment any closed-loop, cognitive therapeutic approaches by enhancing the underlying neuroplasticity, thus leading to even greater cognitive enhancement.
Two forms of NIBS methodologies are transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS and transcranial alternating current stimulation tACS. These techniques modulate neuronal transmembrane potentials by delivering weak electrical currents tDCS and tACS , , , thereby altering plasticity in the stimulated brain regions , Although the application of NIBS is generally thought to be a safe, non-pharmacological approach that has shown potential to counteract age-associated cognitive decline , crucial questions surrounding the heterogeneity of effects remain unaddressed.
First, optimal stimulation protocols and regimes need to be established. The direction and magnitude of effects of NIBS are strongly influenced by the prevailing brain states in targeted regions at the time of stimulation , Thus, the timing of the stimulation while a cognitive task is administered during the stimulation is critical.
Second, inter-individual variability exists in response to NIBS, with efficacy of NIBS being related to degree of education , genotype , pre-intervention performance , and the magnitude of the electric fields that reach the targeted brain area , which underscores the importance of individualizing stimulation parameters.
In summary, an effective use of NIBS to induce cognitive enhancement in aging brains likely requires an integration of optimal stimulation protocols and individually tailored stimulation parameters to more precisely target the specific functional networks that underlie cognitive functions most in need of improvement.
Testing hypotheses about the factors that predict or moderate treatment responses in the remarkably heterogenous OA population requires large and diverse cohort samples. Such large-scale studies are also needed to move the field beyond findings from relatively small studies towards the real-world validation of cognitive therapeutic technologies.
An emerging solution is to leverage modern, mobile technology for example, the Internet, wireless mobile devices, and cloud-based analytical and storage servers to facilitate the recruitment of larger, more diverse, representative cohorts into clinical trials while minimizing costs.
The need for such a solution has been augmented by the COVID pandemic, which has led to an even greater necessity for new, creative tools for improving public mental health in the setting of such unpredictable conditions.
New digital health technologies also hold promise for altering the landscape of how RCTs are conducted Fig. Indeed, it is now clear that mobile technology can be especially powerful in improving research-participant access, especially to those living in rural areas or members of minority ethnic groups, while simultaneously reducing the expense and time course of such trials Most of these research platforms have been designed to assist with enrolling participants, collecting data, and applying human resources for data interrogation, rather than complex study coordination.
However, we believe that the next phase of this field will use technology for more than data collection, but also to make easily interpretable data more actionable for both researchers and participants.
Indeed, there is an important value in developing technology not only to collect data, but also to accelerate the pace of research and enhance the security of data collected remotely for example, through cloud-based analytics and storage.
Relevant to this discussion, more OA are embracing new technology every year. The clear trend is toward increased adoption of mobile technologies, making it important to study and refine digital interventions for enhancing cognition now, so they can reach as many OA as possible.
Critically, the percentage of the population that owns a mobile device is equally distributed among white, Black, and Hispanic people , , Thus, fully remote trials of digital therapeutics have the potential to greatly increase the ability to disseminate these interventions at scale and to reach drastically more diverse study populations than would be expected from a trial that requires participants to come into a medical or research center.
One step toward addressing this goal is making such tools easily accessible. Research has demonstrated that telemedicine and mobile approaches show comparable efficacy to in-person treatment , resulting in substantial interest in using mobile apps as an alternative care-delivery platform.
Such digital approaches to cognitive enhancement have the potential for breaking down barriers to access, especially in underserved or hard-to-reach populations of OA We have reviewed several approaches in which technology can aid in the personalization of cognitive enhancement in aging, but other emerging technologies also offer exciting new avenues for innovation.
Elements such as art, music, story, challenge, and competition could be dynamically manipulated to maximize engagement and compliance to further personalize experiences. Key to such an approach will be collection of large amounts of data and the application of machine-learning and artificial-intelligence techniques to create robust and dynamic predictive models of the factors that moderate treatment responses at the individual level.
There are a host of new accessible mobile technologies that can be leveraged to collect ecologically valid data as individualized baseline signatures and ongoing diagnostic monitoring of OA in the real-world and in real-time In addition to cognitive enhancement, technology is transforming the broader landscape of mental health and high-quality, personalized care for healthy OA who are living longer with each generation.
Technologies that attempt to modify and support real-life behaviors have advanced at a tremendous pace in recent years. For example, several methods have been developed to combat loneliness, anxiety, and depression, which are common in OA Examples include online and mobile delivery of established clinical treatments, such as cognitive behavioral therapy ; VR paradigms for fostering greater feelings of connectedness and boosting mood ; artificial-intelligence-driven voice-activated technologies for example, Alexa that not only help with organization and access to news and media, but also increase connectedness through human—machine conversations ; and therapeutic robots in the form of appealing animals that help OA cope with anxiety and memory loss These technologies are exciting and add to the emerging ecosystem of methods that can be tailored to the specific needs of an individual.
The impact of these therapeutic technologies could be augmented through combinatorial approaches as discussed above and by the incorporation of closed-loop systems for example, a robotic companion that receives passive physiological signals from a wearable device and uses those data to guide its real-time engagement with its OA companion.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, Population Division. World Population Ageing Brookmeyer, R.
Alzheimers Dement. Article PubMed Google Scholar. Ward, A. Mild cognitive impairment: disparity of incidence and prevalence estimates. Kivipelto, M. Lifestyle interventions to prevent cognitive impairment, dementia and Alzheimer disease.
Sala, G. Working memory training in typically developing children: a meta-analysis of the available evidence. Cognitive training does not enhance general cognition. Trends Cogn. Working memory training in typically developing children: a multilevel meta-analysis.
Hou, J. et al. The long-term efficacy of working memory training in healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 22 randomized controlled trials. B Psychol. Teixeira-Santos, A. Reviewing working memory training gains in healthy older adults: a meta-analytic review of transfer for cognitive outcomes.
Lampit, A. Computerized cognitive training in cognitively healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of effect modifiers. PLoS Med. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Rebok, G. Ten-year effects of the advanced cognitive training for independent and vital elderly cognitive training trial on cognition and everyday functioning in older adults.
Willis, S. Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older adults. Article CAS Google Scholar. Smith, G. A cognitive training program based on principles of brain plasticity: results from the Improvement in Memory with Plasticity-based Adaptive Cognitive Training IMPACT study.
Geriatrics Soc. Article Google Scholar. Wu, Z. Distinct cognitive trajectories in late life and associated predictors and outcomes: a systematic review. Alzheimers Dis.
Sánchez-Izquierdo, M. Cognition in healthy aging. Public Health 18 , Ryan, L. Precision aging: applying precision medicine to the field of cognitive aging. Aging Neurosci. Schechter, G. PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Mishra, J. Video games for neuro-cognitive optimization.
Neuron 90 , — Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Hill, N. Older People Nurs. Lazar, A. In Dis Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Designing Interactive Systems — Association for Computing Machinery, Brefczynski-Lewis, J.
Neural correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation practitioners. Natl Acad. USA , — Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar.
Anguera, J. Video games, cognitive exercises, and the enhancement of cognitive abilities. Verhaeghen, P. Aging, executive control, and attention: a review of meta-analyses. Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults. Nature , 97— Long-term maintenance of multitasking abilities following video game training in older adults.
Aging , 22—30 Adaptive training diminishes distractibility in aging across species. Neuron 84 , — Berry, A. The influence of perceptual training on working memory in older adults.
PLoS ONE 5 , e Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar. Rolle, C. Enhancing spatial attention and working memory in younger and older adults.
Jagust, W. Vulnerable neural systems and the borderland of brain aging and neurodegeneration. Neuron 77 , — Naveh-Benjamin, M. Adult age differences in episodic memory: further support for an associative-deficit hypothesis.
Learn Mem. Petersen, R. Press, Norman, K. Modeling hippocampal and neocortical contributions to recognition memory: a complementary-learning-systems approach. Wais, P. Retrieval of high-fidelity memory arises from distributed cortical networks.
Neuroimage , — Roediger, H. Test-enhanced learning: taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Kempermann, G.
More hippocampal neurons in adult mice living in an enriched environment. Nature , — Bilkey, D. Exposure to complex environments results in more sparse representations of space in the hippocampus. Hippocampus 27 , — McAvoy, K. Modulating neuronal competition dynamics in the dentate gyrus to rejuvenate aging memory circuits.
Neuron 91 , — Virtual reality video game improves high-fidelity memory in older adults. Kolarik, B. Enriching hippocampal memory function in older adults through real-world exploration. Elor, A. On Shooting Stars: comparing CAVE and HMD immersive virtual reality exergaming for adults with mixed ability.
ACM Trans. Li, G. Enhanced attention using head-mounted virtual reality. Parsons, T. Virtual reality for enhanced ecological validity and experimental control in the clinical, affective and social neurosciences. Seifert, A. The use of virtual and augmented reality by older adults: potentials and challenges.
Virtual Real. Davis, R. Clemenson, G. Virtual environmental enrichment through video games improves hippocampal-associated memory. Ng, A. Ultra-high-field neuroimaging reveals fine-scale processing for 3D perception.
Colcombe, S. Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, and aging. Brown, B. Intense physical activity is associated with cognitive performance in the elderly. Middleton, L. Physical activity over the life course and its association with cognitive performance and impairment in old age. Coelho, F.
Physical exercise modulates peripheral levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor BDNF : a systematic review of experimental studies in the elderly. Cotman, C.
Exercise builds brain health: key roles of growth factor cascades and inflammation. Trends Neurosci. Bekinschtein, P. Effects of environmental enrichment and voluntary exercise on neurogenesis, learning and memory, and pattern separation: BDNF as a critical variable? Cell Dev. Jin, K. Vascular endothelial growth factor VEGF stimulates neurogenesis in vitro and in vivo.
USA 99 , — Nakajima, S. Regular voluntary exercise cures stress-induced impairment of cognitive function and cell proliferation accompanied by increases in cerebral IGF-1 and GST activity in mice. Brain Res. Rhyu, I. Effects of aerobic exercise training on cognitive function and cortical vascularity in monkeys.
Neuroscience , —
Green tea supplement details. Cognitive complaints in the absence Cognirive objective cognitive impairment, observed in Cognitive enhancement strategies with Cognitive enhancement strategies cognitive decline SCDare enhanceement in old age. The first step to postpone cognitive decline Cognitive enhancement strategies to stratevies techniques known to improve cognition, i. We syrategies to provide clinical recommendations to improve Cognitive enhancement strategies performance in cognitively unimpaired individuals, by using cognitive, mental, or physical training CMPTnon-invasive brain stimulations NIBSdrugs, or nutrients. We made a systematic review of CMPT studies based on the GRADE method rating the strength of evidence. CMPT have clinically relevant effects on cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes. The quality of evidence supporting the improvement of outcomes following a CMPT was high for metamemory; moderate for executive functions, attention, global cognition, and generalization in daily life; and low for objective memory, subjective memory, motivation, mood, and quality of life, as well as a transfer to other cognitive functions. Personal enhancements eg, cosmetic surgery have Cognotive societal acceptance, but cognitive enhancement poses ehancement ethical, philosophical, Cognotive sociopolitical issues. Cognitive Cognitive enhancement strategies is often characterized by attempts to increase the Dnhancement of cognitive Cognitivw, such as attention or stratdgies, in enhanccement individuals. Lowering cholesterol for better health humans Cognitive enhancement strategies other species enhancememt consistently Cognitive enhancement strategies Clgnitive to improve from an evolutionary standpoint, what stratsgies relatively new is the impact of medications and technological advances in enhancing such efforts. Although personal enhancements such as cosmetic surgery have gained societal acceptance, interventions such as cognitive enhancement continue to be a matter of significant ethical, philosophical, and sociopolitical debate. It is important to understand that the use of any currently available pharmaceutical agents to enhance cognition is off-label and is limited by evidence of efficacy. While stimulants are most often used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy, these medications have also been used off-label as an augmentation strategy in depression, to manage fatigue in patients with cancer, and to treat apathy in patients with dementia. Methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine are believed to work by allosteric inhibition of presynaptic dopamine and norepinephrine transporters, thereby preventing neurotransmitter reuptake and resulting in enhanced monoaminergic neurotransmission.
Wirklich auch als ich darüber früher nicht nachgedacht habe
Es ist die wertvolle Phrase