All berries, fruits, and vegetables were fresh samples unless otherwise noted in the database. The Antioxidant Food Table contains samples. About of these samples have been published before [ 16 , 17 , 28 ] but for comparison and completeness we have included them in the present publication.

All individual samples previously published are identified by a comment in the Antioxidant Food Table. The categories and products in the database are presented in alphabetic order. Information about brand names and product trademarks does not imply endorsement by the authors, and are reported as descriptive information for research applications only.

The Antioxidant Food Table will in the future be available online as a searchable database. In addition to the products mentioned in this paper, other foods will in the future be analyzed and incorporated into the online version, which will be posted on the University of Oslo's web site.

Our results show large variations both between as well as within each food category; all of the food categories contain products almost devoid of antioxidants Table 1. Please refer to Additional file 1 , the Antioxidant Food Table, for the FRAP results on all products analyzed. The categories "Berries and berry products", "Fruit and fruit juices", "Nuts and seeds", "Breakfast Cereals", "Chocolate and sweets", "Beverages" and "Vegetables and vegetable products" include most of the common foods and beverages which have medium to high antioxidant values Table 1.

We find that plant-based foods are generally higher in antioxidant content than animal-based and mixed food products, with median antioxidant values of 0. Furthermore, the 75 th percentile of plant-based foods is 4. The high mean value of plant-based foods is due to a minority of products with very high antioxidant values, found among the plant medicines, spices and herbs.

In the following, summarized results from the 24 categories are presented. In the category "Beverages", products were included, from coffee and tea to beer, wine and lemonades.

Dry products like coffee beans and dried tea leaves and powders were also included. The highest antioxidant values in this category were found among the unprocessed tea leaves, tea powders and coffee beans. In Table 2 we present an excerpt of this category and of the analyses of fruit juices.

Fifty-four different types of prepared coffee variants procured from 16 different manufacturers showed that the variation in coffees are large, ranging from a minimum of 0.

Other antioxidant rich beverages are red wine, which have a smaller variation of antioxidant content 1. Beer, soft drinks and ginger ale contain the least antioxidants of the beverages in our study, with drinking water completely devoid of antioxidants.

Most of the breakfast cereals have antioxidant content in the range of 0. Among grains and grain products, buckwheat, millet and barley flours are the flours with the highest antioxidant values in our study Table 3 , while crisp bread and whole meal bread with fiber are the grain products containing most antioxidants.

Beans and lentils have mean antioxidant values ranging from 0. Different types of rice have antioxidant values between 0. In the nuts and seeds category we analyzed 90 different products, with antioxidant contents varying from 0.

Pecans with pellicle, sunflower seeds and chestnuts with pellicle, have mean antioxidant content in the range of 4. Walnuts, chestnuts, peanuts, hazelnuts and almonds have higher values when analyzed with the pellicle intact compared to without pellicle.

Various types of chocolate were analyzed, from milk chocolate to dark chocolate and baking cocoa. The variation of antioxidant content in chocolate ranged from 0. The dairy category included 86 products and the majority of these products were low in antioxidant content, in the range of 0.

Dairy products with added berries or chocolate and cheeses like Brie, Gorgonzola and Roquefort are the most antioxidant rich products in this category. One hundred and thirty four products are included in the category "Desserts and cakes".

In the upper range of this category we find dog rose soup and chocolate cookies. Eggs are almost devoid of antioxidants with the highest antioxidant values found in egg yolk 0.

Margarine, butter, canola, corn and soybean oil are the highest ranking products in the "Fats and oils" category. Almost half of the fats and oils have antioxidant content between 0. In Table 4 we present an excerpt of the all the berries, fruits and vegetables analyzed.

One hundred and nineteen berries and berry products were analyzed. The average antioxidant content of berries and berry products is relatively high with 25 th and 75 th percentiles being 1.

There were 13 samples with especially high antioxidant capacity in this category, including dried amla Indian gooseberry, Dried wild bilberries Vaccinum Myrtillus , native to Northern Europe , zereshk red sour berries from Iran and fresh dog rose from Norway and Spain have mean antioxidant contents of Other examples of antioxidant rich berries are fresh crowberries, bilberries, black currants, wild strawberries, blackberries, goji berries, sea buckthorn and cranberries.

The least antioxidant rich berry products are some of the berry jams with mean values of approximately 0. A total of fruits and fruit products and vegetables and vegetable products were included in the database.

In the analyzed vegetables, antioxidant content varied from 0. In fruits, procured in 8 different countries, the antioxidant content varies from 0. Examples of antioxidant rich fruits and vegetables were dried apples, flour made of okra, artichokes, lemon skin, dried plums, dried apricots, curly kale, red and green chili and prunes Table 4.

Examples of fruit and vegetables in the medium antioxidant range were dried dates, dried mango, black and green olives, red cabbage, red beets, paprika, guava and plums. This is the most antioxidant rich category in the present study and is also the category with largest variation between products.

Half of the products have antioxidant values above the 90 th percentile of the complete Antioxidant Food Table and the mean and median values are The 59 products included originate from India, Japan, Mexico and Peru. Sangre de Grado Dragon's Blood from Peru has the highest antioxidant content of all the products in the database Other antioxidant rich products are Triphala, Amalaki and Arjuna from India and Goshuyu-tou, a traditional kampo medicine from Japan, with antioxidant values in the range of Only four products in this category have values less than 2.

The category includes 52 products, including European, Scandinavian and American products. The variation in antioxidant content in dinner and dessert products for infants varies from 0. Interestingly, human breast milk 49 samples from Norwegian mothers has a mean content of 2. In addition, the category includes two Norwegian dog rose products for infants with antioxidant contents of 6.

An excerpt of the spices and herbs analyzed in our study are presented in Table 5. The study includes spices and herbs from 59 different manufacturers or countries. When analyzed in fresh samples compared to dried, oregano, rosemary and thyme have lower values, in the range of 2.

This is also true for basil, chives, dill and parsley. In addition to common spices and culinary herbs, we have also analyzed other herbs, like birch leaves, wild marjoram and wood cranesbill among others. Details on all herbs can be found in Additional file 1 , the Antioxidant Food Table. The category "Vitamin and dietary supplements" includes commercially available vitamin and dietary supplement products from USA, Norway, Mexico and Japan of which many have high antioxidant scores.

Among them are supplements containing anthocyanins, vitamin C, green tea powder and multivitamins and multi-antioxidant tablets. The majority of the products in these categories were low in antioxidant content.

Nevertheless, products like liver, bacon and some prepared chicken and beef products have antioxidant values between 0. With this study we present a comprehensive survey of the total antioxidant capacity in foods. Earlier small-scale studies from other laboratories have included from a few up to a few hundred samples [ 20 — 22 , 29 — 31 ], and in the U.

Department of Agriculture presented the Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity ORAC of Selected Foods report including food samples [ 23 ]. These studies have been done using different antioxidant assays for measuring antioxidant capacity making it difficult to compare whole lists of foods, products and product categories.

Still, a food that has a high total antioxidant capacity using one antioxidant assay will most likely also be high using another assay [ 20 — 22 ].

Consequently, the exact value will be different but the ranking of the products will be mainly the same whichever assay is used.

In the present extensive study, the same validated method has been used on all samples, resulting in comparable measures, thus enabling us to present a complete picture of the relative antioxidant potential of the samples.

When classifying the samples into the three main classes the difference in antioxidant content between plant- and animal-based foods become apparent. The results here uncover that the antioxidant content of foods varies several thousand-fold and that antioxidant rich foods originate from the plant kingdom while meat, fish and other foods from the animal kingdom are low in antioxidants.

Comparing the mean value of the 'Meat and meat products' category with plant based categories, fruits, nuts, chocolate and berries have from 5 to 33 times higher mean antioxidant content than the mean of meat products.

Diets comprised mainly of animal-based foods are thus low in antioxidant content while diets based mainly on a variety of plant-based foods are antioxidant rich, due to the thousands of bioactive antioxidant phytochemicals found in plants which are conserved in many foods and beverages. Most of the spices and herbs analyzed have particularly high antioxidant contents.

Although spices and herbs contribute little weight on the dinner plate, they may still be important contributors to our antioxidant intake, especially in dietary cultures where spices and herbs are used regularly. We interpret the elevated concentration of antioxidants observed in several dried herbs compared to fresh samples, as a normal consequence of the drying process leaving most of the antioxidants intact in the dried end product.

This tendency is also seen in some fruits and their dried counterparts. Thus, dried herbs and fruit are potentially excellent sources of antioxidants.

Herbal and traditional plant medicines emerged as many of the highest antioxidant-containing products in our study. We speculate that the high inherent antioxidant property of many plants is an important contributor to the herb's medicinal qualities.

In our study we identified Sangre de Grado, the sap from the tree trunk of the species Croton lechleri sampled in Peru to have exceptional high antioxidant content. This sap has a long history of indigenous use in South America for wound healing and as an antifungal, antiseptic, antiviral and antihaemorrhagic medicine.

Proanthocyanidins are major constituents of this sap [ 32 ] and studies have shown that Sangre de Grado limits the transcription of a wide range of pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators and accelerates the healing of stomach ulcers [ 33 , 34 ] and promotes apoptosis in cancer cells [ 35 ].

Other extreme antioxidant rich herbal medicines are Triphala, an Indian Ayurvedic herbal formulation, shown to have anti-inflammatory activity [ 36 ], antibacterial and wound healing properties [ 37 , 38 ] and cancer chemopreventive potential [ 39 ].

Arjuna, another Auyrvedic formula, has been shown to have health beneficial activities [ 40 , 41 ] while Goshuyu-tou, a traditional Chinese kampo medicine has been shown to significantly reduce the extracellular concentration of NO in the LPS-stimulated Raw With their high content of phytochemicals such as flavonoids, tannins, stilbenoids, phenolic acids and lignans [ 43 — 45 ] berries and berry products are potentially excellent antioxidant sources.

The phytochemical content of berries varies with geographical growing condition, and between cultivars [ 46 , 47 ] explaining the variations found in our study. During the processing of berries to jams, total phenol content is reduced [ 48 ] resulting in lower antioxidant values in processed berry products than in fresh berries.

Nuts are a rich source of many important nutrients and some are also antioxidant-rich. The observed increase in antioxidant content in nuts with pellicle compared to nuts without pellicle is in good agreement with earlier studies showing the flavonoids of many nuts are found in the nut pellicle [ 49 ].

After water, tea and coffee are the two most consumed beverages in the world, although consumption patterns vary between countries. Because of the fairly high content of antioxidants and the frequent use, coffee and tea are important antioxidant sources in many diets.

Several different compounds contribute to coffee's antioxidant content, e. Many of these are efficiently absorbed, and plasma antioxidants increase after coffee intake [ 50 , 53 ].

In green tea, the major flavonoids present are the monomer catechins, epigallocatechin gallate, epigallocatechin, epicatechin gallate and epicatechin. In black tea the polymerized catechins theaflavin and thearubigen predominate in addition to quercetin and flavonols [ 54 , 55 ].

Interestingly, the antioxidant content in human breast milk is comparable to that in pomegranate juice, strawberries and coffee and on average higher than the antioxidant content observed in the commercially available infant formulas analyzed in our study.

Breakfast cereals are also potential important sources of antioxidants; some of these products have antioxidant contents comparable to berries, which are fairly high, compared to other grain products and may be due to antioxidants added to the products in fortification process.

Chocolate have for several years been studied for its possible beneficial health effects [ 56 ]. Our results show a high correlation between the cocoa content and the antioxidant content, which is in agreement with earlier studies [ 30 , 57 ].

As demonstrated in the present study, the variation in the antioxidant values of otherwise comparable products is large. Like the content of any food component, antioxidant values will differ for a wide array of reasons, such as growing conditions, seasonal changes and genetically different cultivars [ 46 , 58 ], storage conditions [ 59 — 61 ] and differences in manufacturing procedures and processing [ 62 — 64 ].

Differences in unprocessed and processed plant food samples are also seen in our study where processed berry products like jam and syrup have approximately half the antioxidant capacity of fresh berries.

On the other hand, processing may also enhance a foods potential as a good antioxidant source by increasing the amount of antioxidants released from the food matrix which otherwise would be less or not at all available for absorption [ 65 ]. Processing of tomato is one such example where lycopene from heat-processed tomato sauce is more bioavailable than unprocessed tomato [ 66 ].

The large variations in antioxidant capacity observed in the present study emphasize the importance of using a comprehensive antioxidant database combined with a detailed system for food registration in clinical and epidemiological studies.

Initial studies have been carried out to examine the association between intake of antioxidant rich foods and their health effects [ 67 , 70 ]. Some of these studies describe a beneficial effect on oxidative stress related chronic diseases, e.

from intake of nuts [ 49 , 69 ], pomegranates [ 71 — 73 ], tomatoes [ 6 ], coffee [ 74 ], tea [ 54 , 75 , 76 ], red wine [ 77 — 79 ] and cocoa [ 56 ]. The highly reactive and bioactive phytochemical antioxidants are postulated to in part explain the protective effect of plant foods.

An optimal mixture of different antioxidants with complementary mechanisms of action and different redox potentials is postulated to work in synergistic interactions.

Still, it is not likely that all antioxidant-rich foods are good sources and that all antioxidants provided in the diet are bioactive.

Bioavailability differs greatly from one phytochemical to another [ 26 , 27 , 80 ], so the most antioxidant rich foods in our diet are not necessarily those leading to the highest concentrations of active metabolites in target tissues.

The antioxidants obtained from foods include many different molecular compounds and families with different chemical and biological properties that may affect absorption, transport and excretion, cellular uptake and metabolism, and eventually their effects on oxidative stress in various cellular compartments [ 24 ].

Biochemically active phytochemicals found in plant-based foods also have many powerful biological properties which are not necessarily correlated with their antioxidant capacity, including acting as inducers of antioxidant defense mechanisms in vivo or as gene expression modulators.

Thus a food low in antioxidant content may have beneficial health effects due to other food components or phytochemicals executing bioactivity through other mechanisms. The Antioxidant Food Table is a valuable research contribution, expanding the research evidence base for plant-based nutritional research and may be utilized in epidemiological studies where reported food intakes can be assigned antioxidant values.

It can also be used to test antioxidant effects and synergy in experimental animal and cell studies or in human clinical trials.

The ultimate goal of this research is to combine these strategies in order to understand the role of dietary phytochemical antioxidants in the prevention of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and other chronic diseases related to oxidative stress.

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The more free radicals, the more antioxidants you need to protect yourself. The best source for antioxidants is organic herbs, fruits and veggies.

Herbs are some of the most powerful antioxidants. Here we have the 12 top antioxidant herbs ranked by ORAC scores oxygen radical absorbance capacity , a system developed by the National Institutes of Health to show how well a fruit, veggie or herb disables a free radical.

In fact, it has significantly more antioxidants than other antioxidant superstars like goji berries or acai berries. Sumac bran is a popular spice used in Middle Eastern cuisine due to its tangy, lemon-like flavor. Clove is a common spice made from dried flower buds.

They are prized for their one of a kind sweet and spicy flavors. Studies have found that cloves can boost immune function, promote healthy digestion, and fight inflammation 2. Oregano is a popular herb used to flavor pasta sauces, pizza, roasted vegetables, and countless other dishes.

A considerable amount of evidence also suggests that oregano has potent anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory benefits making the herb a great way to enhance your cooking while boosting your health at the same time 4.

Rosemary is a fragrant evergreen herb often used in Mediterranean cuisine. In addition to its aromatic flavor, rosemary is loaded with antioxidants.

Studies have found that rosemary contains several antioxidant compounds including carnosol, carnosic acid, ursolic acid, and rosmarinic acid 5.

All of which add up to an impressive ORAC score. Cinnamon is a spice that transcends cultural norms when it comes to cuisine. You can find it in all types of food around the world ranging from apple pie to aromatic basmati rice. Turmeric, without a doubt, stands as one of the most beneficial natural substances on the planet.

High quality, organic turmeric is rich in a compound called curcumin. Curcumin is a powerful antioxidant that also boasts a long list of health benefits. Add this golden spice to rice dishes, or mix into a superfood smoothie see recipe to help fight temporary inflammation following a tough workout.

Vanilla bean contains compounds like 4-hydroxybenzyl alcohol and 4-hydroxymethoxybenzyl alcohol. Cumin is an aromatic spice made from the powdered seeds of the cumin plant.

You may know it from Mexican or Middle Eastern recipes. Parsley is becoming an increasingly popular herb for both its bright flavor and health benefits when juiced. Like most of the herbs mentioned here, many of the benefits of parsley are due to its antioxidant effects. One study by the Institute of Food Safety and Toxicology , for example, found that adults who consumed parsley had significant reductions of oxidative stress in the body, showing it works well as an antioxidant Basil is a popular herb with a fragrant flavor that brings pesto to life.

It contains two water-soluble flavonoid antioxidants called orientin and viceninare. In addition to their ability to protect your body from free radicals, they have anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial properties Basil is a perfect companion to tomato dishes pasta or pizza and even complements fresh fruits such as watermelon for a healthy treat.

But the benefits go well beyond digestive health. Ginger contains a beneficial phytochemical called gingerol which exerts a wide range of beneficial effects including its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects Consider adding ginger to stir fry recipes, marinades, or salad dressings to take advantage of its sweet spicy flavor and antioxidant content.

A wide variety of antioxidants occur in plant-based foods, such as blueberries, green leafy vegetables, cocoa, and beans. Antioxidants may help defend the body against oxidative stress from potentially harmful free radicals. Oxidative stress may increase the risk of developing cancer , heart disease , and many other chronic illnesses and health problems.

Many healthful foods contain antioxidants. If a person consumes some or all of these foods regularly, they may increase their antioxidant levels, potentially helping them prevent the damage that doctors associate with oxidative stress. In this article, we list some of the most healthful foods that a person can eat to boost the antioxidants in their diet.

Blueberries are rich in nutrients while also being low in calories. A study showed that wild blueberries contain a large number of antioxidants. Studies on blueberries have shown that these fruits have beneficial effects as a result of their antioxidant content.

For example, the authors of a review of animal studies concluded that antioxidants in blueberries might have medicinal uses for neurological conditions, including those that relate to aging. A review examined the anthocyanins that occur naturally in blueberries and other plant materials. Anthocyanins belong to a group of chemicals that have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions.

They are responsible for many of the bright colors of fruits and vegetables. Good quality dark chocolate has high levels of nutrients and antioxidants. Researchers have linked dark chocolate to a range of potential health benefits, including:.

One review of 10 studies involving close to participants showed that dark chocolate helps reduce both upper and lower blood pressure measurements.

The authors noted, however, that future research needs to determine how much dark chocolate a person should eat for these benefits and investigate its effect on other metabolic conditions.

Artichokes provide lots of nutrients and antioxidants. One study looking at the medicinal use of artichokes over time noted that artichoke consumption can be good for gut, liver, and heart health.

Another study showed that chemicals in artichokes had an antioxidant effect on LDL cholesterol in laboratory tests. How people prepare artichokes makes a difference to their antioxidant levels. One study compared boiling, frying, and steaming to see how each affected the antioxidant levels.

The results showed that steaming increased the effectiveness of the antioxidants by 15 times while boiling increased it eightfold. Researchers believe the reason for this is that boiling and steaming break down the cell walls, making the antioxidants more accessible.

One study showed that the body can absorb antioxidants from pecans, increasing their levels in the blood. It also found that eating raw pecans helps lower the blood levels of oxidized LDL cholesterol, which may mean that these nuts help prevent heart disease.

Strawberries are rich in antioxidants, vitamins , and minerals. Strawberries owe their red color to anthocyanins, which have antioxidant powers. A review showed that taking anthocyanin supplements reduced the levels of LDL cholesterol in participants with high cholesterol.

By lowering LDL cholesterol levels, anthocyanins may help prevent heart disease. Although strawberries are an ingredient in some baked goods, these products are rarely healthful and are not a good choice for people trying to lose weight. Red cabbage, like strawberries and red kale , contains anthocyanins.

In addition to giving the vegetable its red color, this group of antioxidants helps promote heart health, prevent cancer, and reduce inflammation. According to one study , anthocyanins have the following health benefits:.

However, more research is still necessary to determine the health effects of eating red cabbage. A person can eat red cabbage as part of a salad or as a cooked vegetable. Raspberries are an excellent source of many antioxidants. They also contain manganese, vitamin C , and dietary fiber.

Evidence suggests that the antioxidants present in raspberries may help destroy certain cancer cells. For example, in one laboratory study , researchers found that the antioxidants and some other compounds in raspberries helped kill breast, colon, and stomach cancer cells in a test tube.

A more recent review of studies showed that the compounds in black raspberries might slow the progression of cancerous tumors. However, most of the research on raspberries has involved experiments in test tubes. Consequently, researchers need to carry out studies involving people to judge the effectiveness of eating raspberries in preventing disease.

Beans are an excellent source of protein and dietary fiber. Some beans, such as pinto beans, are also high in antioxidants. Pinto beans contain a plant flavonoid called kaempferol, which may help suppress cancer cell growth and reduce inflammation.

Several studies link kaempferol to the suppression of specific cancers, including:. Despite these promising studies, researchers do not know much about the antioxidant effect of kaempferol in humans.

To date, they have primarily carried out studies in animals and test tubes. However, as beans have several potential health benefits, it is a good idea for people to include them as part of their regular diet.

Purple and red grape varieties contain vitamin C, selenium , and antioxidants. Two of the antioxidants that occur in grapes, namely anthocyanin and proanthocyanin, may help protect a person from heart disease or cancer.

However, there is a need for additional research to show the exact effects that eating grapes has on heart health and cancer risk. Spinach is a green, leafy vegetable full of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. It is low in calories, making it an excellent choice as an addition to salads and entrees.

Zeaxanthin and lutein are two of the antioxidants in spinach that may promote eye health. They help prevent damage from ultraviolet UV rays and other harmful light waves. A review of studies on lutein and zeaxanthin noted that lots of studies have investigated their role in age-related macular degeneration.

The authors also suggested how people could get more of these antioxidants in their diets, naming dark leafy greens, eggs, and pistachios as sources. Beets are vegetables that contain antioxidants belonging to a class of pigments called betalains.

Betalains may help prevent colon cancer and digestive issues. Clove oil has antibacterial activity thanks to its β-caryophyllene and eugenol content. Bacteria with which it is effective include campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli , salmonella enteritica, Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus.

Antifungal effects have also been reported on Candida albicans , trichophyton rubrum, microsporum canis, tricophyton mentagrophytes, fusarium monoliforme, microsporum gypseum, fusarium oxysporum, epidermophyton floccosum, mucor species, microsporum gypseum and aspergillus [ 58 , 62 ].

Oregano grows largely in temperate regions and is rare in Africa. Different studies have concluded that the use of oregano improves stability and reduces lipid oxidation throughout the shelf life of foods meat, meat products, milk, fish or fish products.

This property makes thyme an enriched functional food source [ 63 ]. Thyme includes monoterpene polyphenols such as thymol and p-cymene, with the most particular component being carvacrol, and other monoterpenes such as -pinene, 1,8-cineol, camphor, linalool and borneol [ 9 , 21 , 63 ]. Flavonoid content is quite high [ 21 ].

The common feature of the thyme types widely used in the industry is that they contain essential oil and the main components of these essential oils are thymol and carvacrol. These substances are phenolic compounds that give thyme its unique scent and give it antioxidant properties [ 27 ].

Thyme is a nutritional antioxidant that stands out with its antidiabetic, antibacterial and anticarcinogenic effects.

The basis of its antimicrobial activity is the free hydroxyl group, its hydrophobicity and the presence of a phenol moiety [ 64 ]. Similarly, the presence of phenol is responsible for its antispasmodic and antitussive effects. There are also both animal studies and in vitro studies on its anthelmintic effects [ 65 ].

In in vitro studies, the effect of thyme oil on antibiotic-resistant enterococcus and escherichia strains, especially staphylococcus and pseudomonas strains has been presented. It is highly effective on biofilms, and its antibacterial effects are associated with direct penetration into the cell wall and matrix [ 66 ].

In the Figure 2 , natural spices with potent antioxidant features and which are most commonly used are listed. Natural spices with potent antioxidant features and which are most commonly used.

It is among the most valuable spices in the world [ 14 ]. It is one of the most important phytochemical carotenoids [ 14 , 21 ].

This molecule has the effect of reducing tumor growth [ 14 ]. It has potent antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects. It has been observed that crocetin significantly reduces insulin resistance, corrects hyperinsulinemia, dyslipidemia and hypertension in rats that are given fructose.

After chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in rats, it has been determined that the extracts of crocin and crocetin increase spatial cognitive abilities. Its use in traditional medicine, especially in dermatological diseases, in eastern societies, especially in China and India, is based on approximately 4, years.

This product, which is accepted as a combination of plants that have a place in religious rituals in ancient times, is collected in its roots and stems and then reproduces by giving seeds again [ 20 ].

Originally, this spice, which comes from the ginger family, has been recognized to have a healing effect on many disease progression, although some remained only in the clinical trial phase. However, the transition from traditional medicine to modern plug was not difficult.

This spice with flowers and broad leaves grows in tropical climates. Its color and taste are used by putting it in pasta, rice, vegetables, meat dishes and salads. Curcumin has been proven to be sensitive to light, so it is recommended that biological samples containing curcumin should be protected from light [ 67 ].

Studies are underway to increase its bioavailability after oral ingestion, as its absorption from the gastrointestinal tract is poor and most of it is excreted in the feces [ 68 ]. Its antioxidant properties are due to the methoxy, phenoxy and carbon—carbon double bonds in its structure.

Even though its metabolic rate and elimination are high, its bioavailability is limited. However, in the development phase of many diseases, cytokines, it plays an important role by regulating growth factors, kinases, transcription factors and enzymes.

Its molecular activity on signal transduction and redox reactions has always been a curiosity. High-level methoxylation and low-level hydrogenation of curcumin content increase free radical scavenging ability [ 68 ]. Curcumin is one of the spices with the highest antioxidant and anti-inflammatory component [ 2 , 12 ].

The antioxidant effect of curcumin is based on reducing TNFα and IL-1 expression and establishing balance with ROS. Curcumin, other than being beneficial for wound healing, also has an antibacterial effect by controlling the inflammatory response.

Curcumin induces apoptosis of inflammatory cells and thus shortens the inflammatory phase. It accelerates healing by increasing collagen synthesis and fibroblast migration in the early phase of wound healing. However, forms suitable for topical use are not yet available.

In vivo and in vitro studies on this subject continue. Therefore, it is much more effective to add oral forms of curcumin to the diet for wound healing at this stage [ 69 ].

There are studies showing that curcumin reduces the proliferation and invasion of tumor cells [ 70 ]. It has been examined that curcumin is a biologically active agent that increases cancerous cell apoptosis in head—neck, pancreatic and colorectal cancer patients [ 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ].

Curcumin is also a good source of ω-3 fatty acids and α-linolenic acid. It prevents atherosclerosis by reducing the level of LDL in the blood, preventing lipoperoxidation, and reducing cholesterol levels [ 74 ].

It is mostly because of this effect that it is used as a common cooking spice in developed countries where the consumption of saturated fatty acids is greatly increased. Curcumin supplementation is recommended for foods during both prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases in which atherosclerosis plays a major role.

Curcuminoids reduced blood sugar, partly due to their effect of reducing free fatty acids, and in addition, in studies on rodent models, they prevent the reduction in antioxidant capacity caused by diabetes.

As a result, it has been reported to have an antidiabetic effect in patients with insulin-resistant type-II diabetes and in in-vivo studies [ 75 , 76 ]. Cumin Cuminum cyminum is a well-known culinary spice that is often used in mealtimes.

Its oblong-shaped seeds have a strong aromatic scent and a warm bitter flavor. It is widely grown in Central Asia, Pakistan, India, Iran and China.

It is traditionally used as an antiseptic agent. It is also widely used in digestive disorders such as dyspepsia and diarrhea [ 72 ]. Its bioactive components are terpenes, phenols and flavonoids. Thanks to these components, it has been proven that it has free radical scavenging and metal chelating properties [ 77 ].

It is a spice with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties [ 12 ]. Animal studies are available showing the hypolipidemic and antidiabetic effects of cumin [ 78 ]. Experimental studies have been conducted to support the effect of cumin on renal ischemia—reperfusion injury [ 79 , 80 ].

It also has antibacterial and potent antimicrobial activity [ 66 , 77 ]. Cumin seeds also have immunostimulating, gastric protective, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, and neuroprotective activities [ 81 ].

The most specific feature of cinnamon, which is an evergreen tree, is its aromatic scent. Cinnamon, which is also widely traded, is frequently consumed in Iran in the form of traditional tea. It is used to prevent lipid oxidation of bakery products such as cakes, so that it prevents the taste of foods [ 82 ].

It is a spice with a pronounced antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effect [ 12 ]. It has been observed that consuming it especially in tea form is beneficial in the treatment of diseases related to oxidative stress. It has also been presented to have a sedative effect in many human studies [ 83 ].

Cinnamon, acting like insulin, increases insulin receptor kinase activity and stimulates glycogen synthase activity.

Thus, it exerts antidiabetic effect [ 82 , 84 ]. Spices such as cinnamon have started to be included in prescriptions as an additional treatment, due to the toxic side effects of diabetes medications and balance problems due to long-term use.

In these studies, which accelerated the development of multiple antibiotic resistances, antibacterial effects on factors such as bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus cereus , Escherichia coli , salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Listeria monocytogenes , and fungal effects such as aspergillus monocytogenes, aspergillus monocytogenes are also known [ 85 ].

In addition, NF-κB, which is known to be effective in cancer development acts an anticancer by inhibiting the production of IL-1β and TNF-α. Cinnamon is beneficial in lowering triglycerides and LDL cholesterol by affecting the blood lipid profile through the poliphenols in its structure [ 86 ].

The effect of polyphenols here is achieved by inhibiting hepatic lipid peroxidation. In this way, by cleaning hydroxy and fatty acid radicals and chelates, providing the metabolic balance of fat and carbohydrates, cinnamon has turned into a functional nutrition.

With a slightly bitter but strong aroma, this root can be used in powder or ground form. It can be consumed in brine, drying, canned or fresh [ 20 ].

Among these are terpenes, polysaccharides, lipids, but especially gingerol, physiological effects are the most intense [ 20 , 87 ]. The proportion of gingerol is higher in fresh ginger than the dried form, so consuming fresh is more important for its antioxidant effect [ 20 ].

Studies mention the effects of ginger on cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, antinausea and antiobesity. Its anti-inflammatory effects have been demonstrated in the treatment of osteomyelitis, arthritis and rheumatism [ 89 ]. Ginger, which has increased glutathione levels and suppress lipid peroxidation during its anti-inflammatory effects, is widely used as a food flavor in developed countries for colds, migraine attacks and gastrointestinal disorders.

Its antimicrobial effects are related to its lipophilic property, making the fungal walls and cytoplasmic membrane permeable. Antibacterial effects on species such as Staphylococcus aureus , Streptococcus pyogenes , Streptococcus pneumoniae and haemophilus have been proved on various animal and human studies.

The most stable metabolite, 6-gingerol derivative, has been observed to have an antinause effect by blocking 5-hydroxy tryptophan and serotonin-mediated vagal afferent neurons in patients used after chemotherapy, nephrectomy and cesarean operations [ 90 , 91 ].

It is obtained from the ripe fruits of Piper nigrum L [ 27 ]. Black pepper has a very common pharmaceutical use in the world [ 14 ]. It is cultivated in tropical regions, especially in India, Malaysia, Asia and Indonesia [ 12 , 27 ].

It is among the best-selling spices on the market in some countries like India [ 14 , 92 ]. Black pepper contains five phenolic acids piperettine, piperanine, piperylin A, piperolein B and pipericine amide with antioxidant effects [ 12 , 13 , 27 ]. Additionally, it contains alkamides, piptigrine, wisanine and dipiperamide [ 13 ].

These phenolic components have a damaging effect by preventing the growth of the bacterial membrane, and their antimicrobial activity occurs through this mechanism [ 12 ]. These compounds are non-greasy, odorless, tasteless and exhibit stronger antioxidant activity than α-tocopherol [ 27 ].

The composition in the form of essential oil has antimicrobial activity [ 12 ]. The quality of black pepper varies depending on piperine causing bitterness and the essential oils responsible for its aroma [ 12 , 27 ]. Piperine is a green crystalline clear substance that was first isolated in This alkaloid is a compound that gives the pepper its bitterness.

The nature of piperine, which is its active basic component, is known in detail, and its effectiveness in alternative medicine has been clearly proven [ 13 , 14 , 21 ]. Its content, piperine, is a bioactive component with known beneficial effects on human health [ 13 , 14 ].

Piperine is absorbed by passive diffusion in the gastrointestinal tract and has a short clearance time [ 13 ]. In a study of industrial microwaving of black pepper, it was determined that no change was observed in the antioxidant properties of this herb [ 50 ].

It has antioxidant, antimicrobial and antipyretic properties [ 27 ]. Antidepressant, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticarcinogenic, antithyroid activities are some of the important pharmacological effects of black pepper [ 13 , 14 , 93 ].

Its anti-inflammatory effect has been detected on rats in many experimental studies. Black pepper accelerates the digestion process, increases digestive enzymes, gastric acid and bile acid secretion, and shortens the food transit time. Piperine significantly reduces cell death, brain edema, and post-reperfusion proinflammatory cytokines in rats.

It has decreased hippocampal cell death after ethylcholine aziridinium ion administration in rats [ 21 ]. Piperine has reduced arthritis pain in animal models.

Piperine supplementation reduces muscle damage when given before and after exercise. Piperine reduces histamine release and eosinophil infiltration in animal models. However, it suppresses allergic airway inflammation and airway hypersensitivity.

Piperine increases energy expenditure in animal experiments, activates the sympathetic nervous system, causes thermogenesis, increases catecholamine levels, and activates adrenal sympathetic nerves [ 13 ]. In a study, it was examined that lipid peroxidation was delayed in pork meat with the addition of black pepper [ 13 , 94 ].

Piperine prevented lipid accumulation in mouse macrophages. Alternatively, it has been determined to transform into foamy cells in animal studies, which can reduce fat accumulation in the arterial wall [ 13 ].

Capsaicin is an alkaloid. Among its recently discovered ingredients are capsiate and dihydrocapsiate [ 13 ]. The beneficial effects of red pepper have been documented long before.

In vitro and experimental studies of red pepper and capsaicin have proved potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of it against oxidative stress in various tissues and organs [ 13 ]. This spice type has the ability to induce apoptosis in major type cancers.

It has been presented that capsaicin treatment in gastic cancer cells MGC and cervical cancer cells HeLa prevented the G1 phase in cell cycle analysis. In another study conducted in vitro, it has been determined that it has a protective effect on rat hippocampal neurons, reduces hippocampal death after global ischemia, decreases the size of cerebral infarction after bilateral arterial occlusion in mice, and decreases the infraction volume in neonatal rats ligated in unilateral carotid arteries after hypoxia [ 21 ].

However, capsaicin regulates energy metabolism and has beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system, with its antioxidant and antiplatelet effects. In a clinical study conducted on humans, it was determined that 5 grams of red pepper Capsicum frutescens lowered blood glucose levels and maintained healthy insulin levels.

In the short-term use of red pepper, it has been observed that body mass index contributes to management, decreases energy and fat intake, increases body heat production thermogenesis , increases body metabolic rate, decreases the conversion of fat cells to mature cells adipogenesis and increases fat oxidation.

Capsaicin has been detected to be gastroprotective in patients with peptic ulcer disease. Capsaicin reduces acid secretion, induces alkaline mucous stimulation particularly by affecting gastric mucosal blood flow and contributes to ulcer healing [ 13 ]. In a study comparing antioxidant effects, it was stated that the strongest antioxidant effect was in rosemary and curcumin, followed by herbs such as cinnamon, saffron, sage, and thyme [ 2 , 27 , 46 ].

Shahidi et al. asserted that the antioxidant activities of clove, sage, thyme and ginger in meat oil were concentration-dependent [ 95 ]. They stated that among these substances, the most effective was clove, and the least effective spices were ginger and thyme [ 95 ]. Pizzale et al. found that, on average, the antioxidant activity of sage species Salvia officinalis and fruticosa was higher than thyme species Origanum onites and indercedens in their study [ 96 ].

Another study proved that chloroform extract of dried musk sage Salvia sclarea has higher antioxidant activity than acetone extract, and both extracts have higher total antioxidant activities than α-tocopherol [ 27 ].

Nakatani et al. determined that black pepper is more effective than synthetic antioxidants such as BHT and BHA [ 97 ]. In another study, the antioxidant properties of curcuminoids were investigated, and it was determined that the antioxidant capacity of these extracts was equivalent to ascorbic acid [ 98 ].

When evaluated in terms of the density of total phenolic compounds, it has been observed that rosemary and thyme have higher phenolic content than other herbs.

Also, it was presented that fresh plants have more intense phenolic content than dried plants [ 9 ]. Correspondingly, it is thought that the most potent antioxidants are fresh rosemary and curcumin, and it may be suggested to increase the consumption of these products.

Since each spice contains a wide range of phenols, many of them can provide synergistic effects with each other. The formulations of different herbs and spices were tested in vivo and in vitro, and their antimicrobial effects were compared [ 12 ].

It is predicted that the antioxidant effect increases significantly when thyme essential oil and vitamin E are mixed in half so that there is a synergistic effect between thyme essential oil and vitamin E [ 27 ]. It has been indicated that meats are effectively protected against Listeria monocytogenes with the combined use of curcumin and thyme [ 12 ].

In an experimental animal study, it was observed that when capsaicin 0. Since piperine increases the absorption of various drug and food sources, it increases their bioavailability when used with other antioxidants.

It increases the absorption of compounds such as coenzyme-Q, curcumin and polyphenol. Piperine shows its effect by decreasing the intestinal and hepatic metabolism of curcumin. In some studies, it has been presented that piperine increases the bioavailability of resveratrol in vivo by inhibiting its metabolism.

In this way, it ensures that additional resveratrol doses are not required [ 13 ]. Therefore, the combined use of herbs and spices with appropriate formulations can be recommended. Herbs and spices used in cooking, increasing the nutritional value of foods and extending the storage time are highly interesting compounds with antioxidant properties due to their bioactive content, showing beneficial effects on human health.

Interest in natural antioxidants in plants around the world is increasing day by day, with the widespread use of natural additives in the food industry. Therefore, herbs and spices have become the most important focus of research for the study of natural antioxidants. Since ancient times, herbs and spices have been used in alternative medical treatments due to their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects.

Although the use of herbs and spices in food and treatment has been available for a long time, research on this subject is limited to the recent past.

In addition to the poor antioxidant features of animal origin foods, the antioxidant power of plant-based foods is much higher. There are over 1.

Although they are very small in terms of weight and volume, they have a feature of increasing the value and antioxidant content of foods. Thanks to the studies conducted on this subject, the application strategies of phytochemical antioxidants in the diet can be determined, and chronic diseases related to oxidative stress such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, inflammation and diabetes can be prevented or their effects can be reduced.

Various synthetic and natural products are used in the food industry to cope with dietary oxidative stress. Hence, there is a need for optimized studies of natural antioxidant products that can be used as food preservatives in the food industry. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest, and there have been no sources of funding.

Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3. Edited by Viduranga Y. Open access peer-reviewed chapter Use of Selected Antioxidant-Rich Spices and Herbs in Foods Written By Perçin Karakol and Emin Kapi.

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Chapter metrics overview Chapter Downloads View Full Metrics. Impact of this chapter. Abstract Free radicals are chemicals that play a role in the etiopathogenesis of ischemia—reperfusion injury.

Keywords antioxidant food herb plant review spice supplement. Introduction It is known that cell or tissue damage is related to free reactive oxygen radicals ROS; reactive oxygen species and associated nitrogen degradation products [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ].

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