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International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 28 5 , — Contemporary nutrition strategies to optimize performance in distance runners and race walkers. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism Low carbohydrate, high fat diet impairs exercise economy and negates the performance benefit from intensified training in elite race walkers.

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The effects of a high carbohydrate diet on cortisol and salivary immunoglobulin A s-IgA during a period of increase exercise workload amongst Olympic and Ironman triathletes. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 26 10 , — Nutrition for ultramarathon running: Trail, track, and road.

International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, Gut-training: The impact of two weeks repetitive gut-challenge during exercise on gastrointestinal status, glucose availability, fuel kinetics, and running performance.

Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 42 5 , — Cox , G. Daily training with high carbohydrate availability increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during endurance cycling. Journal of Applied Physiology, 1 , — Coyle , E. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate.

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Low energy availability is difficult to assess but outcomes have large impact on bone injury rates in elite distance athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 28 4 , — Heydenreich , J.

Total energy expenditure, energy intake, and body composition in endurance athletes across the training season: A systematic review. Sports Medicine Open, 3 1 , 8.

Hulston , C. Training with low muscle glycogen enhances fat metabolism in well-trained cyclists. Impey , S. Fuel for the work required: A theoretical framework for carbohydrate periodization and the glycogen threshold hypothesis. Issurin , V.

New horizons for the methodology and physiology of training periodization. Sports Medicine, 40 3 , — Jeukendrup , A. Periodized nutrition for athletes. Sports Medicine, 47 Suppl. Training the gut for athletes.

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International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism,. Morton , J. Reduced carbohydrate availability does not modulate training-induced heat shock protein adaptations but does upregulate oxidative enzyme activity in human skeletal muscle.

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Case study: Long-term low carbohydrate, high fat diet impairs performance and subjective wellbeing in a world-class vegetarian long-distance triathlete. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 13 , 1 — 6. Murakami , H.

Accuracy of wearable devices for estimating total energy expenditure: Comparison with metabolic chamber and doubly labeled water method. JAMA Internal Medicine. Nash , C. Tacit knowledge in expert coaching: Science or art? Quest, 58 , — Noakes , T.

Low-carbohydrate diets for athletes: What evidence? British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48 14 , — Peeling , P. Sports foods and dietary supplements for optimal function and performance enhancement in track-and-field athletes. Philp , A. Glycogen content regulates peroxisome proliferator activated receptor- partial differential PPAR-partial differential activity in rat skeletal muscle.

PLoS ONE, 8 10 , e Phinney , S. The human metabolic response to chronic ketosis without caloric restriction: Preservation of submaximal exercise capability with reduced carbohydrate oxidation.

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European Journal of Applied Physiology, 4 , — Rauh , M. Associations between the female athlete triad and injury among high school runners. International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 9 7 , — PubMed ID: Sale , C. Effect of carbohydrate feeding on the bone metabolic response to running.

Journal of Applied Physiology, 7 , — Selye , H. Stress and the general adaptation syndrome. British Medical Journal, 1 , — Slater , G. Dietary approaches to optimize training adaptation and performance. Stellingwerff , T.

Case study: Nutrition and training periodization in three elite marathon runners. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 22 5 , — Case-study: Body composition periodization in an olympic-level female middle-distance runner over a 9-year career. Nutritional strategies to optimize training and racing in middle-distance athletes.

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Fueling for the field: Nutrition for jumps, throws, and combined events. Torstveit , M. Within-day energy deficiency and metabolic perturbation in male endurance athletes. Townsend , R. The effect of postexercise carbohydrate and protein ingestion on bone metabolism.

Van Proeyen , K. Training in the fasted state facilitates re-activation of eEF2 activity during recovery from endurance exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 7 , — Volek , J.

Rethinking fat as a fuel for endurance exercise. European Journal of Sport Science, 15 1 : 13 — Widrick , J. Carbohydrate feedings and exercise performance: Effect of initial muscle glycogen concentration. Journal of Applied Physiology, 74 6 , — Witard , O. Dietary protein for training adaptation and body composition manipulation in track-and-field athletes.

Yeo , W. Acute signalling responses to intense endurance training commenced with low or normal muscle glycogen.

Experimental Physiology, 95 2 , — Skeletal muscle adaptation and performance responses to once a day versus twice every second day endurance training regimens.

Morton is with the Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom. Burke is with the Australian Institute of Sport, Belconnen, Australia; and the Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia.

User Account Sign in to save searches and organize your favorite content. Not registered? Sign up My Content 0 Recently viewed 0 Save Entry. Recently viewed 0 Save Search. Human Kinetics. Previous Article Next Article. A Framework for Periodized Nutrition for Athletics. in International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism.

Trent Stellingwerff Trent Stellingwerff Canadian Sport Institute Pacific Athletics Canada University of Victoria British Columbia Search for other papers by Trent Stellingwerff in Current site Google Scholar PubMed Close. James P. Morton James P.

Morton Liverpool John Moores University Search for other papers by James P. Morton in Current site Google Scholar PubMed Close. Louise M. Burke Louise M. Burke Australian Institute of Sport Australian Catholic University Search for other papers by Louise M.

Burke in Current site Google Scholar PubMed Close. In Print: Volume Issue 2. Page Range: — Open access. Get Citation Alerts. Download PDF. Abstract Full Text PDF Author Notes. Assessment of any nutrition ergogenic aids that synergistically match the macroperiodization.

What are the EA requirements of this macrophase? Ensure adequate EI for optimal EA. If required, assess RED-S status indicators as outlined by Mountjoy et al.

Are changes even necessary? Strategic team discussions around risk and reward to optimize body composition targets, and develop an individual profile.

Are there any macro health considerations? Introduction Techniques of exercise periodization for developing muscular fitness have been made popular by a growing body of research Fleck, Studies consistently demonstrate that periodization programs are among the most effective muscle strengthening exercise protocols that exist Fleck, Although there is no single best periodization program that suits everyone due to individual differences such as gender, muscle fiber percentages, and genetics, undulating periodization programs have recently shown particular promise for optimizing muscular fitness benefits Marx et al.

Most recently a unique opportunity for establishing a nutritional framework to support periodization programming has been suggested Coyle, This dietary approach is referred to as nutrient periodization and focuses on adjusting the macronutrients to best support exercise periodization techniques.

The rationale and implementation of this new training application is presented and discussed in this article. What’s the basis of nutrient periodization? Nutrient periodization is a robust system of fluctuating macronutrient carbohydrate, fat, and protein intake that works in concert with the most current exercise and nutrition research for muscle strength and hypertrophy.

Thus, it is a balanced dietary program that fitness trainers, their clients, and scientists can all embrace. How is nutrient periodization grounded in solid nutrition guidelines?

The AMDR’s define the appropriate average ranges for dietary intake of carbohydrate, fat, and protein. These guidelines were designed to avoid nutrient deficiencies that seem to occur when macronutrient consumption consistently falls above or below the recommended levels.

The AMDR recommendations have been incorporated into the Dietary Guidelines for Americans and advocate 45 and 65 percent of their total kilocalories from carbohydrates, 20 to 35 percent from fat, and percent from protein. The AMDR’s allow for the dietary individualism that is necessary for meeting specific exercise goals, such as for building muscle and increasing muscular strength.

How do individuals interested in muscle hypertrophy benefit from this? Athletes and serious exercise enthusiasts often engage in extreme intakes of protein, carbohydrate, or fat, while de-emphasizing other macronutrients at the same time.

Although there may be a need to increase a particular macronutrient acutely, chronic unbalanced dietary practices may result in decreased performance, loss of muscle, and overall fatigue.

Elevated protein intake a common practice for building muscle as it results in maintained positive nitrogen balance may decrease fat and carbohydrate consumption to levels that hinder performance and ultimately inhibit optimal muscle growth. Conversely, high carbohydrate diets a necessity for recovery from intense training bouts may edge out fat and protein, which has an entirely different repercussion, namely altered cholesterol profiles American College of Sports Medicine, American Dietetic Association, and Dietitians of Canada, , depressed testosterone levels Lambert et al.

This will ultimately lead to the inability to gain muscle mass. Therefore, nutrient periodization is a sensible practice for serious exercisers because it can modulate macronutrient intakes while reducing the chance of nutrient deficiencies over an extended period of time.

It works by promoting a day-to-day fluctuation of macronutrient intake to match the exercise periodization needs for building muscle and gaining strength.

It is important to note that because the AMDR recommendations give guidelines for average intakes, individual days can be below or above those recommendations.

As long as the diet falls within those guidelines over the course of several days or a week, nutrient deficiency and disease risk will be low.

Why is kilocalorie intake important for building muscle and gaining strength? Physiologically, the key to gaining muscle mass is to consume more energy than what is expended, while focusing on high-intensity resistance training Lambert et al.

Nutritionists and other health professionals have long understood the importance of tipping the energy scales in favor of excess kilocalorie consumption for muscle gain. Although this view may be criticized for being overly simplistic and sometimes ineffective, energy intake is usually considered a critical strategy for muscle gain.

The exact amount of excess kilocalories required to gain muscle is not clearly known, as the effects of metabolism, exercise, and nutrient status make pinpointing specific requirements difficult.

Experts, however, recommend between excess kilocalories over the course of a week to gain one pound of muscle. Some persons completing serious training may have even higher energy requirements. Based on this research, a kg pounds individual attempting to build muscle might have a kilocalorie requirement of kilocalorie a day or greater.

So, how many kilocalories should be consumed to build muscle? The bottom line is increased kilocalorie consumption is necessary to build muscle.

Why is protein intake important for building muscle and developing strength? When an individual is resistance training particularly heavy resistance training , there is an increase in the rates of both protein synthesis and in the breakdown of protein in muscle for at least 24 hours after a workout.

Additional protein may be needed to, 1 help repair exercise-induced damage to muscle fibers, 2 promote training-induced adaptations in muscle fibers, and 3 assist with the replenishment of depleted energy stores Gibala, How much protein is needed to build muscle? Optimal protein and amino acid ingestion is regarded as crucial for strength and hypertrophy.

Individuals who consistently engage in moderate to high levels of exercise should consider a protein intake that exceeds the U. Dietary Reference Intake DRI of 0. However, in a recent review, Tipton and Wolfe state that there is confusion in the research as to what optimal protein intake is because the level of optimal protein intake in athletes is very different for varying activities and individual goals.

For example, a strength athlete requires sufficient protein to maintain and gain muscle mass, while an endurance athlete is more concerned with simply maintaining muscle mass while improving performance.

This requires the adjustment of protein recommendations to specific levels that have not yet been adequately researched. According to a most recent position stand on nutrition and athletic performance, experienced male bodybuilders and strength athletes may consume 1.

Data on female strength athletes is not available, but there is no evidence to suggest that this level will not sufficiently meet the dietary requirements of female athletes as well. Current research on protein intake for building muscle indicates that higher levels of protein may drive muscle metabolism toward hypertrophy, and so the suggestion for muscle-building is to maintain a high protein intake within the current guidelines Lambert et.

al, A protein intake of 1. Why is carbohydrate intake important for building muscle? Varying exercise intensity is a key strategy to optimally building muscle. The current theory on the effectiveness of periodization programs is that very intense workouts will stress different muscle fibers than less intense workouts.

This means that during an intense workout, certain muscle fibers will be activated while other fibers rest. Stored carbohydrate glycogen is the predominant fuel source for moderate to high intensity activities. High intensity exercise takes a particular toll on glycogen stores because the availability of fat for fuel becomes limited at higher exercise intensities.

When muscle glycogen stores are diminished, fatigue is eminent. The replenishment of depleted muscle glycogen stores is of utmost importance to athletes and other very active people.

When building muscle, especially through a periodization program, this is an important consideration because inadequate glycogen stores will decrease the exercisers ability to maintain appropriate exercise intensities. Resistance exercise may be particularly affected by decreased glycogen stores.

How much carbohydrate should be consumed to build muscle? This recommendation targets endurance exercise, but translates to prolonged, high intensity resistance workouts as well.

The problem with this practice is a long-term high-carbohydrate diet may elevate serum triglyceride and interfere with muscle building by decreasing fat and protein intake. Coyle proposes that a carbohydrate periodization approach bests resolves the long-term consequences of a diet too high in carbohydrates, yet meets the demands of the serious exerciser.

The idea is that not every day of training requires a high intake of carbohydrate since not all days of exercise are intense or prolonged. Coyle writes, “Unfortunately, there has been little investigation of how best to vary carbohydrate intake on a day-to-day basis to match the typical alteration of hard, easy, and moderate days of training performed during a week by well-coached competitive athletes.

Serious exercise enthusiasts often perform 'hard' training sessions per week. This nutrient periodization technique optimally accommodates macronutrient needs to the intensity fluctuations of periodized exercise programs.

A carbohydrate periodization plan for building muscle and increasing muscular strength? Consider the following application from the research. Further, after the carbohydrate stores have been replenished, high carbohydrate intake is no longer necessary focus and the exercisers can focus on the other macronutrients.

Is fat intake important for building muscle? Fat is an essential nutrient in the human diet. In addition to providing energy, it is responsible for the transport of vitamins A, D, and E. Fat is also contained in every cell in the human body as a component of the cell membrane.

If fat intake is too low, blood lipid profiles are affected, and various negative health and performance consequences may occur Dreon et al. This makes the macronutrient a prime choice of foodstuff for recreational athletes building muscle.

Healthful fat is an essential macronutrient for individuals attempting to maintain the high kilocalorie dietary needs of vigorous exercise for building muscle.

Some of the most exciting research on fat intake has examined its suspected contribution to minimizing the effects of overtraining.

Overtraining is a major concern in exercise, as it severely diminishes the success of a fitness program. The use of Omega 3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids has been recently advocated as being a possibly effective way of reducing overtraining symptoms Venkatraman and Pendergast, How much fat is needed to build muscle increase muscular strength?

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Key takeaways. DIET BREAKS AND REFEEDS This has been such a cool topic to follow in the literature over the last 10 years, because more and more research has been done — actually debunking many of the benefits we once believed to be true.

Scratch that, it needs to be 3-days 72 hours. REFEEDS A refeed is classified as days of eating at or slightly above maintenance, via an increase in carbohydrates. DIET BREAKS Diet breaks are typically days long.

Are you attending or in any weddings? Big birthdays coming up? Camping trips? Summer break with your kids? High stress season at work? Starting a business?

Nothing at all, with plenty of time to plan ahead? Pinpoint all your social obligations over the course of the year. Set up your diet phases where you have complete control and optimal adherence.

Determine your caloric intake. Set dates and durations for maintenance phases. Plan for an aggressive, then gradual, reverse diet to transition from those cutting to maintenance phases. Everything You Need to Finally Hit Your Goals:. GET STARTED TODAY FOR FREE.

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The sleep low method is a good example of a fasted cardio method sleep low method studies - study link 1 here , 2 here , where the objective is to eliminate carbohydrate intake prior to sleeping, and fasting up to your morning training session.

Training in the absence of carbohydrate almost or with a low-carbohydrate availability in your muscles or your liver, can promote the expression of certain genes like AMPK to amplify the adaptations from endurance training, like increaesed mitochondria and oxidative enzymes.

However, there's a caveat. These adaptations are amplified only if training is done at the lower intensities, the aerobic zones in which fat is the primary fuel source.

Sleeping low or performing fasted training sessions will greatly reduce the quality of your workouts and the progress you'll make. Since not all training sessions will be high-intensity in nature, training fasted or on low glycogen can actually be applicable in some scenarios.

Proponents of fasted cardio believes training while hungry will help improve mental toughness, this is particularly popular in combat sports. I believe there are other ways to improve mental toughness without reducing the effectiveness of your training sessions though.

Now we start to see the carryover and the synergy between training periodization and nutritional periodization. Doing block periodization and you're in a very high-volume, low-intensity endurance block?

It might be effective to try out low-carb methods for the training block. Peaking for a competition that requires high intensity intervals? Probably a smart idea to carb up. Certain methods work for certain groups of people. Just because a diet works for you, doesn't mean it'll work for someone else, and just because a diet DOESN'T work for you, doesn't mean it won't be effective for someone else.

We just talked about low-carbing or fasting before workouts. How about going low carb for a few months? For life? Enter the ketogenic diet. Sounds similar to the fasted cardio method, but this takes an athlete several weeks to become fat-adapted, therefore affecting exercise and body composition on the longer-term.

Is it useful? Is it effective? In this situation, we have to take into consideration their ability to sustain a diet with low-carbs.

Many of the foods today world contain carbohydrates and it is often hard to skip meals with your friends and family. Consuming a bit too many carbs can bring you out of ketosis and make you feel worse. You don't want to be in no-man's land - where you're not consuming enough carbs to fuel your daily life and exercise, and where you're consuming too many carbs to be in a ketogenic-state.

Diet sustainability is a big factor, paired with the fact that trainees still have to be eating in a calorie deficit. Knowing what fat and protein sources to eat is also something that must be learned if a keto diet is to be sustained in a healthy manner.

Many people can't effectively lose weight and keep that weight off with a ketogenic diet. The ones that can, great for them.

Find what works for you in terms of weight loss. I recommend reading or buying "The Ketogenic Diet" by Lyle McDonald , he has written extensively on this topic and how to properly go on a ketogenic diet for fat loss, performance and body composition goals.

Jeukendrup's review paper and numerous other studies state that a keto athlete has dramatically increased fat utiliziation ability and upregulated enzymes involved in fat oxidation. However, some of the same studies that showed there was no improved performance effects regardless of the fact fat oxidation potential was increased.

There are a lot of successful keto athletes though, it just depends on the type of sport. Like I alluded to earlier, exercises or sports that utilize lower heart rates and intensities will pair best with a low-carb method or approach.

This is viable for sports that are low intensities in nature but require a lot of energy, such as ultra-marathons and other long endurance events. This is not to say a calorie-matched high carb diet won't be more beneficial.

Ketogenic athletes have shown to have a reduced ability to utilize carbohydrates as the enzymes related to carb metabolism are compromised when going on prolonged periods of carb restriction. Not so great for many team sports or endurance events that require repeated short bursts of high-intensity.

edit: A study looking at race walkers on a ketogenic diet showed reduced economy, impairing performance. By far the most popular method to improve fitness and performance goals. Supplements are the first thing many people and athletes turn to as they are marketed to quickly improve performance, help build muscle and shred fat.

There are a lot of ergogenic supplements that have been studied extensively have to plug Examine. com here, best website for information and research regarded supplements to be shown to have health and fitness benefits, protein supplements, creatine, Vitamin D3, beta-alanine, to name a few.

There are also many supplements that have been shown to underdeliver, and are ineffective. Some of which are used incorrectly, but most of which flat out don't work as claimed to.

Supplements and drugs can also reduce training adaptations and be detrimental to performance , like antioxidants and anti-inflammatory drugs. Everyone should always be skeptical when it comes to supplement, to due it's unregulated nature and often times skewed research results.

Take everything with a grain of salt and remember to master the basics before considering taking a shelf full of pills and powders. From my article on pyramids in fitness and nutrition. Supplement usage should be considered on a case by case basis, with context in mind. Training outcomes depend on the fuel you're putting into your body as much as nutritional interventions and methods depend on the your training goal and demands.

The better sport nutritionists understand training periodization, the better nutrition can be provided according to the demands of the athletes.