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: Organic Grape Farming| How to Grow Grapes - Grow Organic | No species or species mix will do well in all locations and in all years. Plant in winter or early spring, pruning back top growth to two or three buds at planting time. About 5 percent of California vineyards were certified organic as of fall , and organic acreage has grown in that state from about acres in to some 12, acres in Cox, In the vineyard, the emphasis is on a scientific approach to biodynamic practices , which Soter traces back to his years as a consultant in Napa. Cover crops include a variety of legumes and mustard that fix nitrogen in the soil and offer a habitat for many beneficial insects. |
| Why Organic Winegrowing Can Be More Profitable Than Conventional | vinifera cultivars are highly susceptible, whereas American species are much less so. Destroy shriveled and infested berries and curled leaves. In addition, the winemaking facility must be certified to ensure compliance with the National Organic Standard. Otherwise you will be prompted again when opening a new browser window or new a tab. Back to blog. Table 1 lists the four American grape species used in wine production: V. It does extensive damage directly to grape berries, flowers, and buds east of the Rocky Mountains, particularly in the Northeast. |
| NEWSLETTER SIGN UP | This happens in the late fall, usually November. This gives the seeds a chance to germinate ahead of the winter rains. The young plants then additionally provide protection against erosion during the Northern California rainy season. Cover crops are planted in the fall and tilled into the soil in the spring, when the vines wake up from their winter sleep. Over the summer, when the vines are developing their grape clusters, we conduct tests on the stems of the leaves, or the petiole. This tells us what the vines are actually taking up from the soil. Cover crops include a variety of legumes and mustard that fix nitrogen in the soil and offer a habitat for many beneficial insects. If the grapevines already have lots of Nitrogen, we use less peas and beans and more grasses. Over a period of years, the benefit of regularly planting a cover crop becomes apparent in the health of the grapevines and the tilth, or health, of the soil. For , among other things, we planted Phacelia seed, a Nitrogen sink. Phacelia takes nitrogen out of the soil which helps to reduces vigor in the grapevine canopy. A less vigorous canopy allows more sunlight to penetrate, which in turn helps to reduce mildew pressure. In years such as this, where extended winter rains will mean there will be a lot of moisture in the soil during the growing season, reducing vigor is a particular concern. If the grapevines get more water than they absolutely need, the grapes they grow will be watery and not very flavorful. In November of , we sowed the following seeds between the vine rows at Laurel Glen Vineyard. These seeds are growing into our cover crop. But we did not stop there. We have gone one step further this year and planted insectaries between a few of the vine rows. All the seeds planted in the insectary rows are known to attract pollinators and beneficial predatory insects i. insects that prey on the leaf-hoppers and mites known to carry diseases that can negatively affect grapevines. True to his heritage, he used expensive synthetic pesticides and fertilizers very sparingly. Instead, we use natural methods for maintaining soil health, controlling vine pests and diseases, and combating weeds and mildew. Ultimately, we feel that responsible farming is not only important for protecting our environment, but results in healthier soil and better quality fruit. As of harvest , a total of acres of vines at our Monte Bello, Lytton Springs, Geyserville, and East Bench vineyards are certified organic. All of the vineyards that we farm are certified by the Fish Friendly Farming Environmental Certification Program , which acknowledges agricultural properties working to restore fish and wildlife habitats and improve water quality. As a result, the Sonoma County Winegrowers have recognized our Sonoma County vineyards as Certified Sustainable. We are in the process of transitioning to organic farming for all remaining parcels of our Estate Vineyards. Starting in , we began the transition to farming our estate vineyards organically in order to bring our vineyard management techniques in line with our traditional winemaking practices, which employ only the non-invasive treatments used in fine winemaking prior to Prohibition. Together, these techniques make up our farming philosophy. Ultimately, the ends justify the means, because wines made in this fashion more aptly express their provenance and are far more gratifying to make and drink. We have always believed that wine is far more interesting and meaningful when it reflects a single place and a natural process. Our commitment to farming our vineyards responsibly means that we maintain certain principles in the vineyard, including biodiversity, ecological balance, sustainability, natural pest management, and soil integrity. Seeding our vineyards with non-vine plants attracts beneficial predatory insects, which mitigates the need to apply an insecticide that might cause harm to non-targeted species like bees. This process also eliminates the possibility that any insecticide residue could be present on the grapes during harvest. Maintaining soil health is critical to an effective farming operation. To preserve soil structure, we only cultivate every other row between grapevines. |
| How are organic grapes grown? | No date Companion Plants~Insect-Repellant Plants~Beneficial Insects , Agriculture Articles. Place in the hole roots side down, so that the plant is supported by the sloping side. In subsequent years, one bunch per shoot should be allowed to grow. Because resident vegetation is typically a complex mix of plants, there will generally be a good cover no matter what type of weather the season brings, since some plants will do better in wetter years, others in dryer years. I made wine from Schuyler that became my communion wine for my wedding. |
Organic Grape Farming -
Protection should be maintained until the berries begin their final ripening stage at about 5 percent sugar Pearson and Goheen, Depending on the cultivar, inoculum level, and weather conditions, it is possible that this could entail sprays every 7 to 14 days from bud break until mid-July or early August.
For example, in the wet growing season of , organically grown Seyval wine grapes a rot-susceptible French hybrid required 17 fungicide applications for disease control Ellis, Yucca Ag-Aide manufactured by Desert King International is a formulation of yucca that is OMRI certified and allowed in organic production.
However, because spores require free water and a certain temperature range for germination and infection, a rigorous spray schedule will probably not be necessary every year.
Also, proper sanitation and good early-season control will help to reduce the inoculum levels of the pathogen. With relatively resistant cultivars and good early season coverage, some eastern viticulturists have been able to control black rot with as few as two to four sprays of Bordeaux mix the first when new shoots are 2 to 4 inches long, and the remainder at two-week intervals.
There are few bunch grape cultivars with high levels of resistance, but some relatively resistant cultivars include Chambourcin, Cynthiana aka Norton , Edelweiss, Elvira, Esprit, Foch, Ives, Cascade, Missouri Reisling, and Alwood.
The non-bunching muscadine grape is very resistant to most races of G. bidwellii , but there are races of this fungus that are pathogenic to muscadines in some areas of the South. Pearson and Goheen, Phomopsis cane and leaf spot is caused by the fungus Phomopsis viticola. This fungus overwinters in the bark of the canes and can be especially severe in the early spring, when it rains for several consecutive days.
Inoculum levels build over time, with disease problems increasing in severity with each successive cool, wet spring. Few cultivars are resistant to Phomopsis, though there are varying degrees of susceptibility.
Control of Phomopsis for the organic grower consists of a combination of appropriate sanitation measures and the use of liquid copper fungicides. Growers should avoid introducing the problem into the vineyard by using only pathogen-free propagation material when planting or re-planting.
Once the disease has appeared, growers should remove as much infected wood as possible from the vines during pruning. Severely infected wood in the basal areas of the cane appears bleached. Debris should be shredded, disked, or plowed into the soil. In addition, measures such as avoiding shaded planting sites, providing good soil drainage and air circulation, and planting rows to take full advantage of sunlight and wind movement also can help control Phomopsis.
Another disease to which V. vinifera varieties are highly susceptible is downy mildew, caused by the fungus Plasmopara viticola. Downy mildew is a major disease of grapes throughout the eastern United States.
It usually overwinters as spores in fallen leaves, but it may survive in buds as mycelium in regions with mild winters. Downy mildew is favored by all factors that increase the moisture content of soil, air, and host plants.
Therefore, rain is the principal factor promoting epidemics. The most serious epidemics of downy mildew occur when a wet winter is followed by a wet spring and a warm summer with intermittent rainstorms every 8 to 15 days. Preventative management practices for downy mildew consist of draining soils, reducing the sources of overwintering innoculum, pruning out the ends of infected shoots, and speeding the drying time of leaves and fruit.
However, because none of these measures is sufficient for cultivars highly susceptible to downy mildew, fungicidal control may be necessary. As mentioned above, organic growers can use liquid copper, or Bordeaux mix, for control of this disease.
Another option for downy mildew management is Trilogy, a commercial formulation derived from neem seeds, which is a broad spectrum fungicide and miticide. Vinifera Vitis vinifera varieties are much more susceptible than American types, and the French hybrids are somewhat susceptible.
Several resistant cultivars are listed in the appendix. Botrytis bunch rot causal organism: Botrytis cinerea , also known as gray mold, can be a problem throughout the U. Botrytis is more of a problem on varieties with tight clusters where moisture tends to collect.
California research indicates that the incidence of botrytis bunch rot can be greatly reduced by removing leaves around a ripening cluster, thereby improving sunlight and air penetration into the cluster Bettiga et al. Although this practice is labor intensive, and therefore relatively costly, it has positive side effects of increased fruit quality, including higher malic and total acids, decreased potassium, increased brix, and better grape color and wine quality Gubler, no date.
Reducing fertilization, thereby reducing lush vine growth, will also help control botrytis. Bordeaux mixture and sulfur-containing fungicides are generally regarded as ineffective control measures against botrytis. New biofungicides are available for management of botrytis.
Trichodex, a formulation of the beneficial fungus Trichoderma harzianum , is now registered in the U. call for the closest distributor. Serenade, a formulation of Bacillus subtilis , QST strain, is a second biofungicide registered for botrytis in grapes.
The chief vector is the glassy-winged sharpshooter GWSS. Both the GWSS and PD are endemic to the southern U. Some American grape rootstocks are able to transfer resistance to vinifera varieties grafted onto it.
A Texas researcher found that vinifera grapes planted on Mustang grape, V. mustangensis synonym, V. candicans rootstocks survived for eleven years in an area where PD had killed all other susceptible grape varieties. Rombough, The PD-GWSS complex is responsible for the difficulty of growing vinifera grapes in infested areas and has had heavy impacts on vinifera grape production in New Mexico, Arizona, and California.
Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are particularly susceptible. Researchers in California and Georgia have examined applications of terpene, a naturally occurring botanical substance, via drip irrigation. Terpenes found in plants are often associated with plant defense mechanisms. Unfortunately, the trials in California did not show any significant effect in treating PD.
PD and the GWSS are severe obstacles to growing European-type vinifera grapes in the southern U. The PD-GWSS complex has recently become a threat to California grape growers.
Although PD has been present in California since the s, the strong-flying and voracious feeding glassywinged sharpshooter was found in Ventura, California, only in and has become the primary, though certainly not the only, vector of the pathogen.
The presence of the GWSS in California has resulted in the rapid spread and transmission of the disease to grapevines and probably many other plant species. The blue-green sharpshooter Graphocephala atropunctata is the most important vector in coastal areas. The green sharpshooter Draeculacephala minerva and the red headed sharpshooter Carneocephala fulgida are also present in coastal areas but are more important as vectors of this disease in the Central Valley.
Other sucking insects, such as grape leafhopper Erythroneura elegantula are not vectors. Management of this disease mostly revolves around management of the leafhopper vectors, and this information can be found in the leafhopper section of this publication.
Viruses in grapes are managed through the use of clean planting stock. Viruses will spread from one plant to a neighboring plant, but the spread is generally slow. Each virus has a unique vector or set of vectors.
Good soil management, particularly practices that promote good soil drainage and avoid the creation of hard pans, will keep root rot problems caused by Phytophthora to a minimum.
Standing water, or prolonged exposure of the trunk, crown or roots to water, will provide an environment on these plant parts that is infection-friendly. Armillaria root rot is a disease that results from planting vines on ground on which host plants previously grew, either natural oaks or orchards of walnuts or plums.
The armillaria exists in old roots of these crops that are still in the soil. When planting a new vineyard in such an area, it is important that the new vines are not overwatered, and that they be planted into healthy, well-drained soil that has good biological activity, which will allow beneficial organisms to compete with the armillaria fungus.
Wherever grapes are grown, there will be insect pests. Existing with each pest, however, is a whole complex of natural controls, including parasites other insects , predators insects, birds, bats, mice, etc. Providing habitat for beneficial organisms is a sustainable approach to managing insect pests, but it must be tempered with awareness of how the presence and management of habitat influences field operations, as well as other factors, such as incidence of harmful insects and diseases.
In the West, mites, leafhoppers, and leafrollers are likely to be the most troublesome arthropod pests, and all of these are indirect pests; i. In general, indirect pests can be tolerated in higher numbers than direct pests, allowing more time for naturally occurring or purchased biocontrol agents to exert an acceptable level of control.
The major insect pest for eastern organic grape growers is the grape berry moth Endopiza viteana. The berry moth is a direct pest of the fruit and flowers and, if left unchecked, can render whole clusters unmarketable. A pheromone-based mating-disruption system for the berry moth provides organic growers with an effective non-pesticide option for berry moth control see below.
Grape berry moth damage, larva, and adult. Photos: Cornell University, New York State IPM Program. The grape berry moth GBM , Endopiza viteana , is native to eastern North America, where it originally occurred on wild grapes. It does extensive damage directly to grape berries, flowers, and buds east of the Rocky Mountains, particularly in the Northeast.
It feeds only on grapes. The number of generations per year varies from 1. High populations and damage have been observed after consecutive mild winters.
Pfeiffer and Schultz, The only biological control agent that has been found to be of appreciable value is the egg parasite Trichogramma minutum , which can be purchased from many insectaries. However, the grape berry moth does not appear to be an optimal host for the egg parasite, and resulting adults have poor vigor and exhibit developmental abnormalities Nagarkatti et al.
minutum ecotype, one that is naturally found parasitizing eggs of the GBM, would be more effective. Destruction of fallen grape leaves, which are overwintering sites for the cocoon-protected pupa, can help reduce spring populations. Covering leaves with at least an inch of firmed soil is another control option.
One popular method is to throw the soil from the row centers into a low ridge under the grape trellis with a grape hoe, disk, or plow.
This should be done 30 to 45 days before harvest. The row centers should be almost level and seeded to a winter cover crop. In the spring, at least 15 days before grape bloom, the ridge soil containing the cocoons in its surface is pulled from under the trellis into the row centers with a mechanical grape hoe.
Any islands of soil left around the posts and grapevines may have to be raked by hand into the row centers. The row centers are then disked and cultipacked to bury the cocoons. Rain or irrigation after this operation will help to seal in the cocoons. This practice has reduced berry moth populations to a point where shortened spray schedules can be used in commercial vineyards Pfeiffer and Schultz, There is a higher risk of developing GBM populations in vineyards bordering woodlands Martinson et al.
Some vineyards are now using an innovative strategy of planting dwarf grasses in the alleys in order to manage excessive vigor of some varieties. Photo: Rex Dufour, NCAT. Grape leafhoppers, Erythroneura species, also can be a serious problem throughout the United States, but these pests more consistently trouble West Coast vineyards.
Research in California indicates that biological control of grape leafhoppers by a tiny parasitoid wasp Anagrus epos and Anagrus erythroneura , egg parasites can be achieved if habitat for non-pest leafhopper species—especially blackberry bushes and French prune trees—is maintained near the vineyard.
The bushes and trees attract related Erythroneura species of leafhoppers, providing an important food source for the parasitic wasp. However, maintaining diverse habitat in this manner may conflict with management for the glassy-winged sharpshooter see below.
Clean cultivation in and around the vineyard can help reduce leafhopper populations, because the adults overwinter in shelters provided by weeds in these areas. If leafhoppers are a problem, and the grower wants to use alley cover crops, then selecting those cover crops least attractive to leafhoppers is an option.
Organic growers can use insecticidal soaps and the botanical insecticide sabadilla to control leafhoppers. Soap sprays are only effective if they cover the leafhopper; i.
PyGanic, a formulation of pyrethrins, is an effective control of leafhoppers and also listed by OMRI. It is accepted by the Organic Materials Review Institute for use in organic production. For leafhoppers and related insects, it seems to act as a deterrent to locating host plants, as well as deterring feeding and egglaying.
For additional information, contact:. John Mosko Marketing Manager Crop Protectants Engelhard Corporation john. mosko engelhard. He keeps close watch on both water and nitrogen inputs and tries to keep the vines just vigorous enough to make a good crop, but not so vigorous as to attract leafhoppers.
If leafhopper populations get out of hand, Piper uses PyGanic. The glassy-winged sharpshooter, Homalodisca coagulata , emerged in the s as a major pest of grapes in California.
Although PD has been present in California since the s, the strong-flying and voracious feeding GWSS has become the primary vector of the pathogen. PD and the GWSS are important obstacles to growing European-type vinifera grapes in the southern U.
Riparian areas in the West have a wide variety of plants that are hosts to the GWSS and can be leafhopper corridors. Monitoring should be directed to areas of the vineyard closest to riparian zones. Research in California has shown that, if properly managed, winter annual legume-grass cover crops—such as a vetch and oats mix—can reduce reliance on insecticides and miticides to control leafhoppers and spider mites in vineyards.
This is in addition to the soil-improving and weed-suppressive benefits of cover crops. This research examined two cover crop systems: 1 cover crop biomass was cut and placed on row berms as a dry mulch to suppress weeds and reduce herbicides; and 2 cover crop biomass was cut and left in row middles.
If sulfur dust used for disease control was used sparingly in late spring and early summer, the presence of these cover crops increased early season activity of predatory mites, resulting in reduced spider mite infestations. Similarly, where leafhopper numbers were not very low and cover crops were properly maintained through early July, the presence of cover crops resulted in reduced infestations of leafhoppers.
These reductions were attributed to enhanced activity of certain groups of spiders that consistently attained higher densities in the presence of cover crops, compared to the clean-cultivated systems.
Leafhoppers also used the cover crops as non-host crops, which may have resulted in less time spent on vines. For more information on this study, contact:. Frank G. Zalom Extension Entomologist Department of Entomology University of California Davis, CA FAX fgzalom ucdavis. Alternate disking of alleyways decreases dust and conserves beneficials.
Various mite species cause problems on grapes throughout the United States. Proper irrigation, dust reduction along roadways, and other practices that conserve and augment natural enemies including predatory mites Metaseiulus, Typhlodromus , sixspotted thrips Scolothrips sexmaculatus , and other generalist predators can help reduce spider mite problems.
In the West, the three major spider mite pests on wine grapes are Willamette mite, Eotetranychus willamettei McGregor , twospotted mite, Tetranychus urticae McGregor , and Pacific mite, Tetranychus pacificus. The most important mite prevention practice is dust control.
Heat spikes in the weather, combined with dust-stressed plants, often result in a mite outbreak. Dust can be managed several ways: improving road surface from dirt to rock or gravel; using water, straw, or dust-suppressant compounds to prevent dust; reducing driving speed; and disking only every other alleyway—vehicle traffic is then routed on non disked rows to provide a dust-free pathway for machinery performing agricultural operations.
Every other row in this vineyard is planted to an oats-bell bean covercrop. Growers in New Zealand use vegetable oil or fish oil as dormant sprays in combination with release of predatory mites.
Welte, Soap sprays also can be effective against mites, but thorough spray coverage is essential, since the mites reside and feed primarily on the underside of the leaf surface.
Soap spray should only be used early in the season because of the possibility of altering the taste of the grape or the wine. Although sulfur dusts or pyrethrum can be used against mites, they are not commonly used since they can be disruptive to beneficial mites and other natural enemies of the pest mites, as well as natural enemies such as the wasp Anagrus epos of leafhoppers.
The beneficial predatory mite Metaseiulus occidentalis is effective in controlling spider mites in California. Another predatory mite, Typhlodromus pyri , is effective against spider mites in locations as widespread as New Zealand and Oregon. These beneficial mites can be purchased from several insectaries in California and elsewhere.
Maintaining a ground cover on the vineyard floor is advantageous to predatory mites and various beneficial insects such as green lacewings, sixspotted thrips, and minute pirate bugs. The grape phylloxera Daktulosphaira vitifoliae is a very small, aphid-like insect that is very difficult to see with the unaided eye.
It has two forms—an aerial, leaf-galling form and a subterranean root-feeding form. Historically, the root form has been the more economically damaging of the two. A two-year field study by UC Davis researchers found that soil management practices can significantly influence the amount of root damage resulting from phylloxera-induced fungal infections.
The researchers found that per-unit root populations of phylloxera did not significantly differ between organically managed vineyards OMV and conventionally managed vineyards CMV , when both were infested with phylloxera.
However, root samples from OMVs displayed significantly less root necrosis 9 percent caused by fungal pathogens than did samples from CMVs 31 percent. Organic vineyard management is characterized by use of cover crops and composts and no synthetic fertilizers or pesticides. This study sampled four OMVs in Sonoma, Napa, and Mendocino counties.
Eight CMVs were initially sampled in these counties and San Joaquin County. This was later reduced to five CMVs for practical reasons.
All vines except for those in San Joaquin own-rooted were on AXR 1 rootstock. Cultures of the necrotic root tissue also revealed some interesting differences: significantly higher levels of the beneficial fungus Trichoderma were found in OMVs in but not in , and significantly higher levels of pathogens Fusarium oxysporum and Cylindrocarpon species were found in CMVs in but not in Lotter et al.
Phylloxera is most injurious to V. vinifera roots, but foliar feeding on all grape species can be severe enough to cause defoliation, although this is rare. Roots of V. rupestris and other American species are tolerant or relatively resistant, compared to V.
vinifera , which is why V. vinifera is commonly grafted onto V. rupestris roots. Grafting onto American species practically eliminates phylloxera injury. Although there are no known controls for already infested roots, recent studies have shown that soil management practices can significantly influence the amount of root damage resulting from phylloxera-induced fungal infections.
Phylloxera infestations in organically managed vineyards resulted in less root damage, compared to that caused by similar phylloxera populations in conventional vineyards. Root damage is caused primarily by secondary infections of plant pathogens at phylloxera feeding sites. Several lepidopterous species attack grapes, including the grape berry moth covered earlier , orange tortrix, the omnivorous leafroller, cutworms, the grape leaf skeletonizer, beet armyworm, and the saltmarsh caterpillar.
Providing habitat for bats can help reduce these pests through direct predation—bats feed at dusk and at night, when many of the moth pests are flying—as well as through avoidance adults of many lepidopterans are sensitive to bat echolocation and may avoid areas where bats are actively feeding.
The naturally occurring bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis Bt is effective against most of these lepidopterans. Some Bt formulations may contain inert ingredients that are not permitted in certified organic production, so be sure to verify product status with your certifier.
Monitoring vineyards for these pests is important in order to time applications of Bt for best effectiveness. Bt works best on the younger, smaller caterpillars.
It also degrades when exposed to UV light, so it will generally not retain effectiveness for more than three to four days. A California study on beneficial insect habitat found that creation of corridors of sequentially flowering native plants can serve as a key strategy to allow natural enemies emerging from riparian forests to disperse over large areas of otherwise monoculture systems.
This study examined distributions and abundance of western grape leafhopper, Erythroneura elegantula, its parasitoid, Anagrus species, western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis, and generalist predators.
Nicholls et al. Mealybugs are not a major pest in the Northeast or the South, but three species—the grape mealybug, Pseudococcus maritimus ; the obscure mealybug, Pseudococcus viburni ; and the longtailed mealybug, Pseudococcus longispinus —can become pests in California vineyards.
Natural controls generally keep these pests in check, although ants must be controlled if they are milking the mealybugs and warding off natural enemies. Female mealybugs cannot fly, so must rely on other means of transport to spread, such as equipment, birds, infected vines and human traffic.
A new pest in California vineyards is the vine mealybug VMB , Plannococcus ficus. The VMB has several attributes that make it a more damaging pest than most other mealybug species. It is native to the Mediterranean, so there are no parasites or predators that have evolved locally to control it.
Hosts in its native range include grape, fig, date palm, apple, avocado, citrus, and a few ornamentals. In California, it has only been found on grapes Bently et al. It has five to six generations per year, so it is able to multiply quickly. It has a cryptic lifestyle, hiding in the roots or under the bark, especially as the weather cools.
The VMB exudes more honeydew than other mealybugs, and this characteristic, along with infestations below the soil line, will help vineyard workers identify the pest. Management of this pest requires managing the ants that spread it.
Controlling the ants increases the chances of parasitism by the imported VMB parasite, Anagyrus pseudococci. Any machinery moving between infested and non-infested vineyards should be washed thoroughly. Beware of nursery stock or machinery coming from infested areas. Nematodes are tiny worm-like creatures that live in the soil.
Some nematodes are beneficial and feed on bacteria and fungi playing an important role in nutrient cycling , while other species, such as root-feeding nematodes, are plant parasites and destructive to crops.
There are many nematode species that attack grape roots. As a consequence, no single rootstock provides complete resistance. Grape cultivars recognized for broad resistance to nematode species include Ramsey, Freedom, and several rootstocks in the Teleki series.
Teleki 5C is the only one that has been specifically tested—this rootstock is also resistant to phylloxera types A and B, but does not do well on soils prone to drought. Kodira and Westerdahl, Important points for nematode management:.
Cover cropping can cause increases, decreases, or no change in nematode populations in the vineyard, depending on the nematode complex that is present and the type of cover crop planted.
For example, Cahaba White vetch as a cover crop is a good host for Meloidogyne hapla northern root knot nematode , a poor host for M.
incognita root knot nematode , and antagonistic to Xiphinema americanum dagger nematode Westerdahl et al. For more information about non-chemical control strategies, biocontrol mechanisms, and ecological soil management practices, see the ATTRA publication Nematodes: Alternative Controls.
Netting can be very effective at preventing grape losses due to birds, but does not integrate easily with other agricultural operations.
In California, by the time the nets are placed, most operations that the nets might interfere with have occurred. Vertebrate pests fall into two categories: mammals and birds. Mammals, such as ground squirrels, voles, gophers, rabbits, and deer, generally damage the roots, the vine, or the foliage.
High populations of these animals can be very damaging, particularly for young vineyards. Sustainable management entails:. Birds are serious pests of grapes.
Control is generally more difficult because birds are so mobile and the fact that many species are protected so make sure the bird species is positively identified prior to taking control actions. Again, habitat modification is helpful to reduce attractiveness of nearby areas as nesting and resting sites.
Flags, noisemakers of various kinds, mylar strips, etc. The most important problem birds are the house finch Carpodacus mexicanus , starling Sturnusbgh vulgaris , and the American robin Turdus migratorius.
The house finch is not common in the central U. Other bird species may be locally damaging. Local farm advisors should be consulted about management options and local, state, and federal laws governing them. The most difficult task in farming grapes organically may be managing weeds under the vine rows.
A common in-row strategy is to eliminate all forms of vegetation weeds as well as cover crops to avoid competition and interference with the vines, at least during the first three to five years of establishment. Thereafter, living mulches are sometimes grown in the vine row during certain parts of the growing cycle.
Especially in young vineyards, a weed-free zone around each vine or down the entire row is commonly recommended to eliminate vegetative competition.
Specialized tillage implements designed for vineyards and orchards are widely used to stir the soil and disrupt weeds in organic vineyards. These include a tractor-mounted French plow or grape hoe, as well as articulating swing-arm implements with rotary harrow and disk attachments to stir the soil that retract when a sensor touches the vine.
Thermal weed control equipment is becoming more popular in organic vineyarding and includes flame, infra-red, and steam options. Drip irrigation should be hung on trellis wires when thermal weeding is planned and to avoid interference with mechanical implements. Mulching will also minimize temperature and moisture fluctuations in the upper soil layer, which may benefit the grape vine.
A study in California found that dried cover crop residue varied among vineyards 1, to 8, pounds of dry biomass per acre , so weed suppression using the mow-and-mulch technique can vary.
Perennial weeds, such as field bindweed, were not well-controlled. Hanna et al. Growers in areas with summer rains may be able to mow their covers several times per season, adding to the in-row mulch layer. Two disadvantages to be aware of with in-row mulches are that they can be a fire hazard in dry environments and can provide habitat for rodents that can damage vines.
Finally, in mature vineyards, cover crops are sometimes managed as living mulches or an understory intercrop during part of the year. In conventional production these are managed with herbicides.
In organic vineyard management, living mulches can be suppressed by mowing, tillage, thermal methods, and alternative herbicides.
Sustainable vegetation management in alleys is as much an art as a science. Particular attention must be paid during the first few years after vine planting, and during dry years, that alley vegetation does not reduce vine vigor.
Many organic growers are constantly experimenting with cover crop blends for the alleys, seeking mixtures that will maximize benefits beneficial insect habitat, improved soil tilth, equipment traction and access to alleys during wet periods, reduced dust and soil erosion and minimize costs fuel, equipment and labor costs associated with planting cover crops, as well as the cost of mowing, seeds, and fertilizer.
The needs of a particular vineyard will dictate the goals for the row middles Pool et al. This subclover cover crop provides a weed-suppressive mulch as well as good habitat for spiders and other beneficial organisms.
Photos: Rex Dufour, NCAT. Several management tools can be used singly or in combination to achieve these goals, including use of cover crops, living mulches, and mowing, in addition to vegetation and weed control through mulching, flaming, and tillage. There are different costs and benefits to each method or combination of methods of weed control.
For example, regular tillage, though an effective weed control, has high costs in terms of equipment and fuel as well as degrading soil structure and increasing the potential for soil erosion. Resident vegetation. Well adapted to local environment and may reseed itself easily.
Because resident vegetation is typically a complex mix of plants, there will generally be a good cover no matter what type of weather the season brings, since some plants will do better in wetter years, others in dryer years.
Some growers have planted native grasses and forbs to good effect. Mixtures of cereals and legumes. These mixes can provide both nitrogen and organic matter to vineyard soils. The planting times for these mixtures will vary according to locale. More than one legume species should be planted to take advantage of differences in climatic preferences, so that at least one of the species will provide reasonable ground cover.
Mixtures heavy on legumes will degrade relatively quickly when mowed. Mixtures high in cereals will last longer when used as in-row mulches due to the high C:N ratio of the plant material. Perennials do not need replanting and save on seed and equipment costs.
These plants will generally need a year to become well established. Perennial cover crops may be more competitive with the vines, particularly in newly planted vineyards or in shallow or less fertile soils Elmore et al.
Use of perennial legumes may encourage gopher activity. Some sod grasses would do well in this situation, particularly some of the new dwarf cultivars that respond to minimal management practices such as low water and low fertility Allen et al.
However, research in New York that examined both grass-only and legume-only cover crops on own-rooted Concord grapes found that all living covers, regardless of species, depressed vine size, particularly if growing during the post-bloom period, and did not contribute to higher grapevine tissue nutrient concentrations Pool et al.
This research was done on a conventionally managed vineyard, however, and may not reflect the soil dynamics of an organically managed system. No species or species mix will do well in all locations and in all years.
It is up to the grower to observe and learn to adjust management practices accordingly, so that weed management and vine growth can be optimized with minimum inputs of costly labor and material. It is important to remember that continuous use of any single management strategy will tend to select for weeds that tolerate that strategy.
Continuous mowing may select for prostrate weeds. Continuous flame weeding will destroy small, broad-leaf plants and select for grasses and perennial plants that have growing points protected by the soil. In the context of alley cover crops, this means that some growers use two sets of cover crops in adjacent alleys, rotating the cover crop mix used in a particular alley every year.
Other growers will clean cultivate one alley for frost protection and plant cover crops in the adjacent alley, then switch the two the following year. Still another strategy is to keep one alley in a perennial cover and plant an annual cover in the next alley, which is disked at grape bud break.
Some farmers in California have used pygmy sheep to graze in alleys and under trellises. The following is from an e-mail listserve posting about using sheep in vineyards. bdnow e-mail archive, pdf — Cornell University Organic Winegrowing Manual — UC-ANR Organic Certification Washington State Department of Agriculture Organic Certification Program — Provides information on the procedures of becoming certified organic, and is a certifying agency for growers.
Washington Tilth Association — A statewide nonprofit organization dedicated to provide support for and promotion of biologically sound and socially equitable agriculture.
USDA National Organic Program — The NOP develops and administers national production, handling, and labeling standards for organic agricultural products. Oregon Tilth Organic Certification — Provides information on the procedures of becoming certified organic, and is a certifying agency for growers.
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